Geography in brief. A short course of lectures on the physical geography of continents

Textbook for 5th grade

In preparing the textbook, suggestions and recommendations from geographer teachers at experimental schools were used:

Edited by Candidate of Geographical Sciences I.P.Galaya

Minsk, 2000

TO STUDENTS

Rules for working with the textbook

In geography lessons, while preparing homework, you, except teaching aid, you must have a geography atlas and a set of outline maps for 5th grade, a compass, a squared notebook, colored pencils, a compass, and an eraser.

Work at home on the paragraphs of the study guide in the following sequence:

Read the text.

Retell each part of the paragraph, and then the entire paragraph.

While reading the text, find on the map all the geographical objects mentioned in it.

Answer the questions and complete the tasks placed after each paragraph.

Write down all the words highlighted in the text of the paragraph (for example, geography) in a dictionary and remember how they are written.

If any term found in the text is not clear to you, refer to the brief dictionary of geographical concepts and terms (at the end of the textbook).

Introduction &1. What does geography study?

Let's remember: What do you know about our planet from the courses “Universe” or “Natural History”? Why is it warm in some areas of the globe and cold in others? Why does it rain?

Keywords:geography, natural conditions, population, economy, nature conservation.1. Geography as a science.G E O GRAPHY- a science that studies natural conditions earth's surface, the Earth's population and its economic activities. This science is one of the most ancient.

Geography translated from Greek means land description (in Greek “ge” - Earth, “grapho” - I write, describe).

*The name “geography” was first used by Eratosthenes even before the beginning of our era in the book “Geography”. It examined the shape and size of the Earth, oceans, land, climate, described individual countries, and the history of geography .

For a long time (until the end of the 18th century), the main task of geography was the discovery and description of new lands, countries, peoples, and the elimination of blank spots on the geographical map. The names of discoverers and explorers - brave and courageous people - are captured in geographical names on the map.

The first geographers were travelers and seafarers. They discovered new lands, countries, peoples, continents, islands, oceans, seas, bays, mountains, plains, rivers and lakes, drew up maps depicting travel routes and new lands, described natural conditions, life and occupations of the population. The routes of their travels and expeditions passed through sultry deserts and cold glaciers, in the sky-high mountains, along fast rivers and stormy ocean waters.

** People learned about ancient travels not only from descriptions, but also from scraps of papyrus or a fragment of a clay tablet with signs written on them.

Geographers have revealed and continue to reveal many secrets of nature. Thanks to their research and observations, we can already answer many questions. For example: why is it raining or windy? In what areas of the Earth should we look for coal, oil or other minerals? But nature still conceals many mysteries, which geographers and other scientists are working to uncover.

Geography is divided into two large parts: physical and economic. Physical geography studies the nature of the surface of the globe; economic geography - population, its economic activities, patterns of distribution of the population and economy.

2. The meaning of geography. Geography was descriptive in the past. Now the main task of geography is to study the diversity of nature, population, its economic activities and explain their development and distribution.

Modern geography clarifies the causes of processes and phenomena occurring on the surface of the globe, and the patterns of their change. One of the most important tasks of geography is forecasting the development of phenomena. Since the nature of the Earth began to change extremely quickly, it is necessary to anticipate those changes in the environment that may occur as a result of human economic activity.

Any development of the territory and construction does not begin without a preliminary study of the area. So, when building a hydroelectric power station on a river, it is necessary to determine where to build a dam, study what rocks the banks of the river are made of, and what area will be flooded with water after the construction of the dam.

For example, a project was proposed for the construction of a very large hydroelectric power station on the Ob River, which flows through the West Siberian Plain. But when this project was thoroughly examined by geographers, it turned out that as a result of the construction of a hydroelectric dam, a huge reservoir would be formed that would flood a significant part of the plain. Swamps will form around the reservoir, which will lead to a change in the local climate, and other unfavorable changes in nature will occur. This project was not accepted.

3. Geography and nature conservation. Geography provides answers to the questions of how best to use the wealth of nature, what to do so that nature does not become impoverished, so that forests do not disappear, fertile soils do not deplete, rivers do not dry up, how to restore and transform nature in the interests of man and nature itself.

State documents of our country constantly emphasize the need for rational use and protection of soils, subsoil, air and water basins. It is necessary to strengthen comprehensive studies of nature for the purpose of wise management.

The features of nature, population and economy of many parts of the earth's surface have not yet been sufficiently studied. People cannot always predict how nature will change as a result of their impact on it. Therefore, geographers continue to explore the Earth's surface. They participate in various expeditions on land and in the oceans, and conduct long-term observations at scientific stations.

1.What is called geography? 2. What two parts is geography divided into? 3. What does physical geography study? Economical geography? 4. What is the significance of geographical science?

SHORT LECTURES ON PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CONTINENTS

Educational and methodological manual.

The course on the geography of continents and oceans is an important link in the system of disciplines of the physical-geographical cycle. This is one of the regional geographical courses that reveals and summarizes information about the largest natural complexes of the planet: continents and oceans. The rich content of the course is about the diversity of the nature of the world, about the travels of discoverers, about the history of the formation and formation of the nature of the continents, about unique animals and flora, about the natural features and attractions of unique corners of the globe cannot be contained within the framework of one textbook. This manual is intended to expand on some of the issues covered in the course.

The geographic envelope, along with integrity, is also characterized by another property - heterogeneity in space and time, variability from place to place, which is called spatial differentiation. As a result, the geographical envelope breaks up into a complex system of heterogeneous areas of various ranks: geocomplexes, geosystems, landscapes, physical-geographical countries, etc. It is in the process of studying the geography of continents and oceans that ideas are created about different territories of the globe, including large ones zonal natural-territorial complexes.

The manual is dedicated to the nature of the two continents of the northern hemisphere - Eurasia and North America, from which the course begins. The characteristics of each continent are built according to a certain generally accepted plan of regional physical and geographical characteristics. It discusses general characteristics continent depending on its geographical location, shape and size. Further, based on paleogeographical material about the history of its formation, characteristics of tectonics, relief, climate, soil, plant and animal life are given. New information about the origin of man on the continents of the northern hemisphere, about the main stages of development and settlement of hominids is reflected. In conclusion, questions about the peculiarities of spatial differentiation within each of the continents are considered and a brief description of the physical and geographical countries is given, reflecting their specificity and originality.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

Image of the USSR on the map.
1) Look at the cool map of the USSR and find Moscow, Leningrad and your city on it; show the Volga, Dnieper and the Caspian and Black seas.
2) What scale is your class map made at? How many times is the USSR reduced on it? Measure the distances from your city to Moscow and Vladivostok. At what scale is the map on page 1 drawn?
Since our USSR is very large, it has to be greatly reduced on maps. Thus, on steppe maps it is usually reduced by several million times. The extent of the USSR from west to east is enormous. A passenger leaving Moscow on a fast train on Monday and traveling east will not arrive in Vladivostok until the following week on Thursday.
TASK. Calculate how many kilometers a day a fast train travels, knowing that the distance from Moscow to Vladivostok is railway- 9,330 km.
To show the direction from west to east on a map of the USSR, you need to find a line on the map called a parallel and follow it from left to right; These lines, i.e. parallels, have the appearance of arcs on the map of the USSR and are parallel to each other.
From south to north, the Naga Union does not spread so widely, but increasingly in this direction its length is more than 3’/a thousand km. The direction from north to south on the map can be determined by meridians (midday lines); on a map of the USSR, meridians usually look like straight lines that converge to the north and diverge to the south.
3) Search on your cool map parallels: 50th, 60th and 70th, as well as meridians: 30th, 100th and 160th.
4) Show the direction from west to east in different parts of the map (on the right side of the map, in the middle part and on the left side).
5) Show the direction from north to south in the same places on the map.
6) Measure the extent of the USSR on the map along the 60th parallel and along the 70th meridian.
Image of the USSR on the globe.
1) Find the USSR on the classroom globe and outline its borders with chalk.
2) How many times is the USSR reduced on the globe? Measure its extent on the globe with a thread and compare it with the class map.
3) How does the image of the USSR on the globe differ from its image on the map?
The surface of the USSR on the map is flat and even, while the surface of the USSR on the globe is convex. The map of the USSR has edges, the surface of the globe has no edges; therefore, on the globe we can see all the countries and seas that are located outside the USSR: so, we see that to the east of the Union lies the Pacific Ocean and that further beyond it is North America.
Unlike a map, on a globe parallels have the form of closed circles.
4) Trace on the globe what is located to the south, west and north of the USSR.
5) Find the parallels on the globe: 50th, 60th and 70th.

Earth.
1) Make several towers out of wax and stick them to the globe at the 50th parallel at different points in the USSR; notice their position relative to each other.
2) Make several ships out of wax and stick them to the globe at the 50th parallel on the oceans.
According to the globe, if you go from a city directly to the east and move without turning, you can return to that same city from the west, going around the earth in a circle. And indeed, if we set off from Moscow to the east, reach the Pacific Ocean, board a ship there and sail even further east along the Pacific Ocean, then after three weeks of sailing we will reach the shores of North America. Continuing our journey even further to the east, we can cross North America by fast train in four days and reach the Atlantic Ocean. Through this ocean, continuing our path again to the east, we can sail on a high-speed ship in six days to cross this ocean and reach the shores of Western Europe, and in three days arrive by rail again to Moscow. Thus, we can make trip around the world, i.e. go around the earth around.
It is possible to make similar journeys in other directions around the earth; and thousands of people every year actually travel around the earth along various routes.
* The first trip around the world was made 400 years ago by Magellan. This navigator equipped five sailing ships (there were no steamships yet) and set off from the shores of Europe to the southwest to go around America, which was discovered by Columbus shortly before Magellan. Only a year later, Magellan circled America from the south and entered the vast ocean, along which he sailed for a long time in calm weather; That's why he called this ocean the Pacific. Thanks to favorable winds, Magellan crossed the Pacific Ocean in four months and landed on the islands, which he named the Philippine Islands. Here Magellan died, and the further journey was completed by his companions: they crossed the Indian Ocean, circled Africa from the south and returned to the shores of Europe. This journey lasted more than three years; out of five ships with 260 sailors, only one returned with 16 sailors. See Magellan's route on the map page 8.

Travel around the world proves that the earth has the same shape as a globe.
Namely, the earth is a huge ball surrounded on all sides by air. Wherever we go, we will see the sky overhead; people living on opposite sides earth, with their heads facing in opposite directions.
Sizes of the globe. Paint the air shell blue.
* Although the globe is very large, its convexity can still be seen both at sea and on land.
Expanding the horizon when rising upward. From an airplane the horizon opens wider than from the top of a mountain. Paint the wider horizon one color and the narrower one another.
A ship going into the distance disappears gradually: first the lower part of the ship (its hull) disappears (as if behind a hump of water), then the middle part (chimneys and sails) and, finally, the upper part (masts and steamship smoke); This phenomenon is noticed in all seas and in all directions, wherever the ship goes. When the ship approaches, it also appears gradually: first its smoke is shown, then its masts, etc.
Since people are very small, they can immediately see only a small part of the earth's surface. But the horizon expands if a person climbs a tower, a mountain, or takes to the air in an airplane.
3) Explain with a drawing why the ship is visible further from a high bank than from a low bank?
4) Find a place where you have a wide horizon.
Rotation of the earth about an axis.
1) Stick wax figures of people to your globe along the 60th parallel and along the 30th meridian and light a candle in front of the globe; sketch the illuminated side and the unlit side.
2) Rotate the globe from left to right about the axis and notice when morning, noon and evening come for your figures.
The globe rotates around its axis, making a full revolution per day, that is, in 24 hours. From this rotation comes day and night, *as the earth turns one side towards the sun, then the other. The imaginary line around which the earth rotates is called the axis, and its ends are called the poles, North and South.
In Dvizkenne this is completely uniform, and therefore people living on earth do not notice this at all. It seems to people that the sun and moon move above the earth, walking across the sky from east to west; In fact, it is the earth that turns from west to east.
Together with the entire earth, the entire USSR rotates around the earth's axis; at the same time, the eastern parts of our Union, located near the Pacific Ocean, are ahead, and there the sun rises first. And since the clocks are set according to the sun (at noon they must show twelve), they run differently in different places. So, for example, when it is 12 o’clock in the afternoon in Vladivostok, then in Leningrad it is only 5 o’clock in the morning. When it is 12 noon in Leningrad, then in Vladivostok it is 7 o’clock in the evening.
3) Remember the times during your travels when you did not notice your movement.
4) Where is noon earlier: in Moscow or in your city?
The degrees are on the globe and on the map of the hemispheres.
1) Draw a circle on a black globe with chalk at an equal distance from both poles (equator); draw the 30th and 60th parallels, north of the equator and south of it. Rice. on page 7.)
2) Draw the prime meridian, as well as the 30th, 60th, 90th, 120th and 150th on a black globe with chalk.
When the earth rotates around its axis, each point on the globe (except the poles) describes a circle. There are a lot of these circles, and they are all called parallels (they are parallel to each other). One of them, the one that runs at an equal distance from both poles, is called the equator. The parallel that is 30 degrees from the equator is called the 30th, and the one that is 60 degrees away is called the 60th. Leningrad is located on the 60th parallel (north of the equator). The equator is more than 40,000 km long, and the 60th parallel is half as long as the equator. Meridians (noon lines) are drawn from pole to pole; all points located on the same meridian have noon at the same time. Meridians are also counted in degrees from the prime meridian, which is usually carried out through Greenwich (a suburb of London).
This count is carried out to the east of Gripich and to the west of it. The 30th meridian east of Gripich passes near Leningrad.
If we know on what parallel and on what meridian the city is located, then it will not be difficult for us to plot it on a globe or on a map.
On the map of the hemispheres, the degree network is drawn in the form of two circles;
of these, the right circle serves for the Eastern Hemisphere, and the left for the Western. Since the map is flat, the image on the degree network is not entirely correct (compared to the globe).
Meridians and parallels. Approximately mark the point of your city and indicate its latitude and longitude.
3) Draw a degree network in your notebook every 30° and mark Leningrad and your city on it.
4) Using the globe, determine on which meridians and parallels the extreme points of the USSR are located.
5) Consider the degree network on your map of the hemispheres, find the equator and prime meridian, find the numbers on the meridians and parallels.
6) How does the degree network on the map differ from the degree network on the globe?
7) Show on the globe and on the map what routes you can take from Europe to India.
To explore the surface of the globe and map continents, islands, seas, oceans, etc., people had to make numerous and difficult journeys.
* First of all, they began in the Mediterranean Sea many centuries before our time. In the eastern part of this sea, on the shores of the Balkan Peninsula and on the neighboring islands, lived the Greeks, who, earlier than other Europeans, learned to sail the sea, first on rowing ships, and then on sailing ships. The Greeks were engaged in trade and explored all the shores of the Mediterranean Sea; they sailed south to Egypt, west to the Strait of Gibraltar, and east to the Black and Azov Seas.
They plotted all these coasts on a map, on which they also indicated the neighboring countries that they had heard about - to the east all the way to India.
The first major journeys from Europe to the east were made only in the 13th century. It was the Italian Marco Polo who, for trading purposes, crossed the entire continent of Asia on horseback and reached China; lived there for 17 years and returned the other way, rounding Indochina and Hindustan on a ship to the Persian Gulf, and through Asia Minor returned home to the Apennine Peninsula. See M. Polo's path on the map of the hemispheres.
Marco Polo wrote a book in which he depicted the countries he saw in bright colors, and greatly exaggerated the wealth of China, the Sunda Islands and India. This book was of great importance: European sailors began to strive to reach these rich countries by sea, and in 1492 the Italian Columbus, convinced that the earth was a sphere, headed to the shores of East Asia by the western sea route, hoping to circumnavigate the earth. But on his way he met an unknown land - it was America.
Five years after Columbus, the Portuguese navigator Vasco d'Gama, wanting to find a sea route to India, set off from the shores of the same Iberian Peninsula to the south, on four sailing ships. Sailing along the coast of Africa, he circled it from the south and sailed through the Indian Ocean to the western coast of India. Thanks to this voyage, the sea route from Europe to India was opened and the outline of Africa was determined.
At the beginning of the 14th century (27 years after Columbus), the first voyage around the world was made. Thanks to this journey, Europeans learned the outline of South America and the extent of the Pacific Ocean (see pages 4 - 5 and map on page 8).
After these great discoveries, Europeans began to sail all the seas of the globe and discover more and more new lands; At the same time, they started trade with the inhabitants of the countries they were opening, and then captured these countries themselves. Among these navigators, the Englishman Kuk made especially great voyages, traveling the length and breadth of the Pacific Ocean and discovering first New Zealand and then Australia. During his last trip, Cook died in the Hawaiian Islands: he was killed and eaten by savages.
Of the other great journeys, the polar ones were especially difficult, made to open the poles, North and South.
Both of these poles are located among very cold countries, where both land and sea are covered with eternal snow and ice. Voyages in the North Polar Sea are very dangerous: many ships were buried there by floating ice and crushed, many travelers died there from cold and disease (especially scurvy).
At the end of the last century, the Norwegian scientist Nansen managed to make a long journey across the North Polar Sea, and both he and his ship remained unharmed.
His ship "Fram" was built in such a way that it was afraid of floating ice and, when pressed by it, only rose upward. On this ship, Nansen reached the New Siberian Islands and from there headed north, hoping that the sea current would carry his ship, along with the ice, all the way to the Pole. For a year and a half the ship moved slowly among the ice,
in general, but directed to the north, but then the ice went to the west. Then Nansen left the ship and, using Siberian sled dogs, headed towards the Pole together with comrade Pogansep from the arch. But the path turned out to be very difficult, since the ice floes were piled into hummocks (hills). For five weeks Nansen walked north and crossed the 86th parallel, but then both dogs and people became completely exhausted, and there were still 400 km left to the Pole. Since Nansen did not know where his ship was, he headed his way to the land of Franz Joseph, to which he traveled more than 500 kilometers along the Arctic Ocean, eating the meat of polar bears and walruses. On the land of Franz Joseph, the travelers overwintered, lying in a den and wrapped in fur tags, and in the spring of 1896 they met with the English polar expedition, which took them to their homeland.
A week later, their ship Fram also returned, freeing itself from the grip of the ice with the help of gunpowder.
Only in the 20th century did the American traveler Pi-ri manage to reach the North Pole on dogs, and it turned out that this pole was located in the middle of an ice-covered sea; and soon after this the Norwegian traveler Amundsen reached and South Pole.
Amundsen set off from Europe on Nansen's ship Fram, circumnavigated America from the south and, reaching the edge of the South Polar Land, landed there on the ice and spent the winter, and in the spring in October on 4 sleighs drawn by dogs (each sleigh had 13 dogs), - moved to the South Pole. Having walked more than 1,200 km, first across an icy plain, and then through high mountains covered with snow and glaciers, Amundsen reached the South Pole, which turned out to lie on a plateau 3 km above sea level. Amundsen then returned safely to his ship on the same road (on which he
Map of the northern polar countries. The paths of Nansen, Pirp and Amundsen. Paint each path a different color.
snowy milestones). At the same time, another polar explorer, Englishman Scott, also reached the South Pole (one month later than Amundsen), but on the way back he was caught in snow storms and died along with his comrades.
Finally, quite recently, in 1927, Amundson traveled on an airship (airship) across the entire Arctic Sea, and he managed to fly directly over the North Pole.
Already in 1926, Amundsen tried to reach this pole on two seaplanes, but on the way one of them went bad, and Amundsen had to go down into the ice hole, from where only with great difficulty, after a month of work, he managed to rise into the air and return back.
In 1927, the airship “Norway”, built in Italy, flew to Leningrad and from here flew to Spitsbergen (in two days). Here Amundsen and the technicians and scientists accompanying him boarded the airship. In one day they flew over the icy desert 1,000 km and reached the pole; They made a short stop over it, without going down onto the ice, and then flew to the shores of America; There we found ourselves in a thick fog, among which we wandered for a long time; at the same time, the airship was covered with a thick icy crust and became so heavy that it had difficulty flying. But still, Amundsen managed to fly near the Bering Strait and then safely land on the ground.
Worked hard on research different countries also Russian travelers. Russian Cossacks were the first Europeans to explore Northern Asia, and they traveled either by boats along rivers, or on horseback, or on reindeer and sled dogs. One of the Cossacks - Dezhnev - in the 18th century went out by boat into the North Polar Sea and circled the eastern tip of Asia (Cape Dezhnev).
The Russian navigator Bering, under Peter I, traveled from Leningrad overland (first by horse sleigh, then by boat along the rivers, then by horse and reindeer) to the Pacific Ocean, then built a ship and explored the shores of Asia and America on it; he discovered the strait separating these parts of the world (the Bering Strait). In addition, Bering equipped an expedition to explore all the northern coasts of Asia. One of his employees, navigator Chelyuskin, reached the northern tip of Asia (Cape Chelyuskin) in winter on dogs. Bering himself, during his voyages, died of hunger and schynga on the island, which was named after him.
In the 19th century, Russian travelers made large expeditions to Central Asia. Particular merits belong to Przhevalsky, who made four great journeys on horseback through the deserts and mountains of Central Asia.
* Miklouho-Maoai (Ukrainian), who studied the life of savages on the island of New Guinea, stands apart from all travelers. He landed on this island without any weapons and lived among the cannibal savages for a year and a half; studied their language and way of life, collected rich collections, and many times faced the danger of being killed and eaten.
Currently, our travelers continue their work exploring different countries. Thus, recently our Soviet expedition under the command of Kozlov (Przhevalsky’s student) made a long journey through Mongolia. Other expeditions explore the shores of the Arctic Ocean.
Continents and oceans (by globe and hemisphere map).
1) Learn to show Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australia and the South Polar Land on a globe and on a map.
2) Name and show each of the oceans on the map and globe.
In the Eastern Hemisphere there is a huge Eastern mainland, which is divided into three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Africa. Europe is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains, the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus Mountains. Africa is connected to Asia by the Isthmus of Sues, through which the Sues Canal was dug in the last century. Nearby islands belong to each of these parts of the world; Thus, the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Novaya Zemlya and others belong to Europe; to Asia - Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago (consisting of the Sunda and Philippine Islands), the Japanese Islands and others; to Africa - Madagascar. The eastern mainland, together with the islands, is called the Old World, as it has been known to Europeans since time immemorial.
In the Western Hemisphere lies the Western Continent or America, which became known to Europeans only from the time of Columbus; That's why America is also called the New World. It consists of North and South America, connected by the Isthmus of Panama; The Panama Canal was dug through this isthmus in the 20th century. Large islands belong to America: Greenland, New Foundland, Antilles and others.
South of the equator there is another part of the world - Australia, to which the islands belong: New Guinea. New Zealand and many small islands scattered in the Pacific Ocean (all these islands together are called Oceania).
Finally, at the South Pole there is a sixth part of the world - the South Polar Land or Antarctica.
Of the oceans, the most extensive is the Pacific or Great, but its size exceeds all land. It is located between Asia and Australia on one side, and America on the other; off the coast of Asia it forms a whole series of seas cutting up the northern eastern shores.
The Indian Ocean, which washes India (Hindustan), is widely connected to the Pacific Ocean; at southern shores In Asia this ocean forms large bays; one of these bays (the Red Sea) is connected by the Sues Canal to the Mediterranean Sea.
The third ocean is the Atlantic; it is located between Europe and Africa on the one hand, and America on the other; it includes the seas: Mediterranean and Black, Northern and Baltic; The seas of the Atlantic Ocean greatly indent the shores of Europe. Off the coast of America, the Atlantic Ocean forms several bays, such as the Gulf of Mexico.
The North Polar Sea, also called the Arctic Ocean, is widely connected to the Atlantic Ocean. The North Polar Sea is connected by the Bering Strait to the Pacific Ocean.
All oceans are interconnected and form one world ocean, which occupies more than two-thirds of the entire surface of the globe.
3) Color all the oceans and seas blue on your blank map. Label the oceans, put numbers on the seas, and explain those numbers on the side of the map.
4) Paint all continents and islands yellow; Label the parts of the world, put numbers on the islands and peninsulas and explain these numbers on the side of the map.
5) Find rivers and mountains in Europe, Asia, Africa and America on the map of the hemispheres,
6) In what parts of the world is the USSR located? What oceans and seas is it washed by?

Movement of the earth around the sun
1) Place the globe in front of the candles in the position indicated in the figure on page 4 to the left (a), and then place it in position b (on the right side); determine in which position our Union will be illuminated more strongly and in which less (while rotating the globe around its axis).
2) Why does the sun heat us up more in summer than in winter?
In the summer, it can be hot in our USSR, especially in its southern regions, where the sun rises very high at noon (sometimes almost directly overhead); Only in the far North, on the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, can summer be cool, since the sun there never rises high above the horizon.
Winter in our USSR can be cold, so the ground is covered with snow everywhere. But on the southern outskirts of the USSR
winter is short and mild; in the middle zone and especially in the far north, winter is severe (with frosts over 40°) and very long; in winter the sun is low at noon, and north of the Arctic Circle there is a polar night, when the sun does not appear at all for many days.
All this is explained by the movement of the Earth around the Sun. Namely, the Earth, rotating around its axis, at the same time moves around the Sun, making a full revolution in one year (36 5 74 days). With this movement, the earth's axis always remains in the same position, namely, all the time this axis is directed towards the North Star; and since the axle is standing
Movement of the Moon around the Earth and the Earth around the Sun. Paint over Solashcho,
Earth and Moon in three different colors.
obliquely, then in summer the rays of the Sun heat up the Northern Hemisphere more strongly, and in winter, on the contrary, the Southern Hemisphere.
When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere; When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere. (See illustration on page 4.)
The Sun is a huge, hot ball, one million times larger than the Earth. The Earth is located at a distance of 150 million kilometers from the Sun. The Moon is the Earth's satellite; it is much closer to us than the Sun and revolves around the Earth, making one revolution every 28 days. In size it is far inferior even to the Earth (50 times smaller) and shines not with its own light, but with reflected sunlight.
3) Why does Luka seem the same size as the Sun?
4) Why does the Moon change its visible shape?
Climate zones.
1) Look at the figure on page 4 (e) and determine where the sun's rays fall more directly and where more obliquely.
2) Find the tropics and polar circles on the map of the hemispheres.
The sun heats most strongly at the equator, where at all times of the year at noon it stands very high and heats very strongly; sometimes the sun is right overhead (at its zenith). There
The weather is hot all year round and snow falls only on the highest mountains. Thus, along the equator, a hot or tropical zone stretches around the entire earth; Its borders are the tropics - North and South.
Beyond the tropics, to the north and south, there are temperate zones^ where the sun is not so high (it is never directly
Climatic zones. Paint over the hot belt with your HEAD). There are different things here
in one color, temperate zones in another color and four times
cold - in the third.
of the year. Temperate zones extend from the tropics to the polar circles, which are located 66V2° from the equator.
Beyond the polar circles, at both poles, there are cold zones - northern and southern, where it is winter for more than half the year; there vast spaces are covered with eternal snow and ice.
In winter there is a long polar night, which lasts six months at the very poles; in the summer there is a long polar day, when the sun does not set at all and circles above the horizon; but this sun warms very weakly, since its rays fall obliquely on the earth.
3) Draw the location of climatic zones.
4) Find the Arctic Circle on the map pages 8 and 168 and determine which parts of the USSR are in the cold zone.

World states on the globe and map.
1) Show the USSR on the political map of the world (pp. 184 - 185) and color it.
2) Find England and its possessions on the same map and color it in a different color.
3) Find the North American United States and fill it in the third color.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is one of the greatest states in the world; it occupies half of Europe and more than a third of Asia. The area of ​​the Union is 21,350,000 square meters. km, which is about one seventh of the entire landmass.
The rest of the land is divided between other states, of which there are about 70. Most of them, however, are small compared to the USSR. So, for example, our neighboring Finland (as well as Poland) is 50 times smaller than the USSR, while Estonia is 500 times smaller.
But there is one state that surpasses the USSR in size and population - this is England, or the British Empire, which occupies almost one-fourth of the entire landmass. England itself (the metropolis) is located on the island of Great Britain, where its capital is located - Lloyd's (7 million inhabitants); its possessions (colonies) are scattered throughout all parts of the world. In Asia, England's main colony is India, approximately equal in size to the entire European part of our Union, and far surpassing it in population. In Africa, England owns: South Africa, East Africa, and in addition, Egypt with the Sues Canal is in its hands. Australia was captured entirely by England, along with New Zealand. In America, England belongs to Canada, which in its geographical position on the American continent and in its nature is similar to our Siberia, but inferior to it in size. All these colonies were captured by England over the course of several centuries, with the help of her huge fleet, which consists of many thousands of large ships, merchant and military. England exploits its colonies, receiving great benefits from them. Therefore, the colonies strive to free themselves from the power of England and become independent, as happened in the last century with the North American United States: before it was an English colony, and now it is an independent and, moreover, very strong state; its capital is Washington, and its main port is New York, greatest city world (8 million inhabitants).
Then the possessions of France are very large; France itself (the metropolis) is located in Europe, neighboring England, and its main colonies are in Africa (Algeria, Morocco, the Sahara, the island of Madagascar) and partly in Asia (French Indochina). The capital of France, Paris, is located on the European mainland.
Of the other European countries, Germany and Italy are the most significant. Germany formerly had large colonies in Africa, but after the World War they passed into the hands of England and France. The capital of Germany is Berlin. Italy has colonies in Africa, the capital of Italy is Rome.
Map of the countries of Northwestern Europe.
4) Color each state on this map a special color. Seas and lakes in blue. Find Germany and England on the map page 184 and color them in the same colors as on this map.
The largest Asian countries are China and Japan. China is populous, 320 million people live in it (the same as in India), China's possessions are vast, but at present it does not represent one state, since there is a civil war in it; main cities of China - Beijing,
Shanghai and Canton. Japan is located on the islands called the Japanese Islands, where its capital, Tokyo, is located. Recently (in the 20th century) Japan captured Korea from China, and now seeks to annex Manchuria as well.
All states, except our USSR, are headed by bourgeois governments that defend the interests of capitalists and landowners. These governments, supporting the exploitation of workers and peasants in their countries, strive to seize other countries for the same purpose. These imperialist states include especially: England, France, Italy, Japan, as well as the United States of North America, which is currently striving to absorb all the states of Central America.
END OF BOOK FRAGMENT

SHORT LECTURES ON GEOGRAPHY

Line insulators are designed for insulating and fastening wires on overhead lines and in switchgears of power stations and substations. They are made from porcelain, tempered glass or polymer materials. By design, insulators are divided into pin and pendant.

Pin insulators are used on overhead lines with voltages up to 1 kV and on overhead lines 6-35 kV. For rated voltages of 6-10 kV and below, insulators are made single-element (Fig. 2.10, a), and for 20-35 kV - two-element (Fig. 2.10, b). IN symbol insulator, the letter and numbers indicate: Ш - pin; F (S) - porcelain (glass); number - rated voltage, kV; the last letter A, B, C is the design of the insulator. Pin insulators are mounted on supports using hooks. If increased reliability is required, then not one, but two or even three pin insulators are installed on the anchor supports.

Disc-type suspended insulators are most common on overhead lines with voltages of 35 kV and above. Suspended insulators (Fig. 2.10, c) consist of a porcelain or glass insulating part 1 and metal parts - cap 2 and rod 3, connected to the insulating part by means of a cement bond 4. In Fig. 2.10,c shows a porcelain insulator of normal design. For overhead lines in areas with a polluted atmosphere, designs of dirt-resistant insulators with increased discharge characteristics and increased creepage distance have been developed. Suspended insulators are assembled into garlands (Fig. 2.11, a, b), which can be either supporting or tensioning. The former are mounted on intermediate supports, the latter on anchor supports. The number of insulators in the garland depends on the line voltage. For example, in the supporting garlands of overhead lines with metal and reinforced concrete supports of 35 kV there should be 3 insulators; 110 kV – 6-8, 220 kV – 10-14, etc.

Linear fittings used for fastening wires to insulators and insulators to supports are divided into the following main types: clamps used to secure wires in garlands of suspended insulators; coupling fittings for hanging garlands on supports and connecting multi-chain garlands to each other, as well as connectors for connecting wires and cables in the span.

The coupling fittings include brackets, earrings and lugs. The bracket is intended for attaching a garland to the support cross-arm or to parts fixed to the cross-arm. The supporting garland of insulators (Fig. 2.11, a) is fixed on the traverse of the intermediate support using earring 1. On one side, earring 1 is connected to a bracket or to a part on the traverse, and on the other hand it is inserted into the cap of the upper insulator 2. To the lower insulator of the garland behind Eyelet 3 is attached to a supporting clamp 4, in which wire 5 is placed.

Clamps for securing wires and cables in garlands of suspended insulators are divided into supporting, suspended on intermediate supports, and tension, used on anchor-type supports. Based on the strength of the wire fastening, the supporting clamps are divided into blind and with a seal of limited strength. The blind clamp is shown in Fig. 2.11c. Press bolts 1 through die 2 press the wire to the clamp body (“boat”) 3 and hold it in place with one-sided tension. Blind clamps are the main type of clamps currently used on 35-500 kV overhead lines.

Oval connectors (Fig. 2.11, f, g) are used for wires with a cross-section of up to 185 mm 2 inclusive. The wires are overlapped in them, after which the connector is crimped using special pliers (Fig. 2.11, e). Steel-aluminum wires with a cross-section of up to 95 mm 2 inclusive are secured in connectors by twisting (Fig. 2.11, g).

Pressed connectors are used to connect wires with a cross-section of 240 mm 2 or more and steel cables of all sections. For steel-aluminum wires, these clamps consist of two tubes: one - steel, designed to connect internal steel cores, and the other - aluminum, placed on top of the first and used to connect external aluminum cores (Fig. 2.11, h).

Vibration dampers with weights or damping loops are suspended from overhead line wires near the terminals, the use of which reduces vibration and prevents wire wires from breaking. The vibration damper consists of two cast iron weights 1 connected by a steel cable 2 (Fig. 2.11, i). For aluminum and steel-aluminum wires of small cross-sections, vibration protection is carried out using a damping loop 1 made of wire of the same brand. The loop is attached to the wire with bolt clamps 2 on both sides of the supporting clamp 3 near the hanging garland of insulators 4 (Fig. 2.11, j).

On the wires of 330-750 kV overhead lines, spacers are used (1 - in Fig. 2.11, l) to fix the split-phase wires relative to each other. These spacers provide the required distance between the individual phase wires and protect them from bunching, collision and twisting.

Conclusion

Overhead power lines (OTLs) are designed to transmit electricity over a distance via wires. The main structural elements of overhead lines are wires, cables, supports, insulators and linear fittings. Wires are used to transmit electricity. Lightning protection cables are installed in the upper part of the supports above the wires to protect overhead lines from lightning surges.

Supports support wires and cables at a certain height above ground or water level. Insulators isolate the wires from the support. With the help of linear fittings, wires are fixed to insulators, and insulators to supports.

Single- and double-circuit overhead lines are most widespread. One circuit of a three-phase overhead line consists of wires of different phases. Two chains can be located on the same supports.

Bibliography:

Overhead power lines: Textbook. allowance for vocational schools. / Magidin F. A.; Ed. A. N. Trifonova. - M.: Higher School, 1991

-Melnikov N. A. Electrical networks and systems. - M.: Energy, 1969

-Kryukov K. P., Novgorodtsev B. P. Designs and mechanical calculations of power lines. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - L.: Energy, Leningrad. department, 1979

SHORT LECTURES ON GEOGRAPHY

1. Modern political map world: diversity of countries modern world, their main types.

1.Modern political map of the world: the diversity of countries in the modern world, their main types.

A political map of the World - geographic map, which shows the state borders of countries around the world. Currently, there are more than 200 countries and territories in the world, more than 180 of which are sovereign states.

For your information: sovereign state - a politically independent state with independence in internal and external affairs (the name comes from the French word souverain - highest, supreme).

It is difficult to indicate the exact number of countries, because The political map is constantly changing.

Since the beginning of the 90s, states such as the USSR and the SFRY ceased to exist, the republics that were part of them acquired the status of independent states; two countries - the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany - united into one state; Czechoslovakia split into two states - the Czech Republic and Slovakia, etc.

There are countries that have declared themselves independent, but are not recognized as such by the world community (Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus)

There are countries that are occupied by other states: Palestine - Israel, East Timor - Indonesia, Western Sahara - Morocco.

But recently there are several more officially recognized colonies: under US control - Eastern Samoa, Guam, etc.; under British control - Gibraltar, St. Helena, etc.

Many territories are not included in the official list of countries for decolonization, because... according to the states that govern them, they are their “overseas” departments.

The countries of the world are diverse in their characteristics, so there is a need to group them:

1) by size of territory:

There are 7 largest countries: Russia, Canada, USA, China, Australia, Brazil, Argentina - each of them has an area of ​​over 3 million square kilometers, these countries together occupy half of the entire landmass;

And very tiny states - Andorra, Liechtenstein, Singapore, etc.

2) by population:

The most numerous: China, India, USA, Russia, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan - with a population of more than 100 million each;

And small in number - the Vatican and many others.

3) according to the characteristics of the geographical location:

A) coastal: Great Britain, Australia, Norway, etc.

B) peninsular: India, Greece, Italy.

C) island: Sri Lanka, Iceland.

D) archipelagic countries: Philippines, Japan.

D) landlocked: Mongolia, Chad.

4) according to the national composition of the population:

Single-national: Japan, Sweden;

Multinational: Russia, India, etc.

5) according to the political system:

Constitutional monarchies (Great Britain, Japan);

Absolute monarchies (Brunei, UAE);

Republics (USA, Germany).

6) according to the state structure:

Unitary (France, Hungary);

Federative (India, Russia).

7) based on socio-economic characteristics:

Until recently, the following countries stood out: socialist (USSR, China, etc.); capitalist (USA, Germany, etc.);

Developing (India, Argentina, etc.). This typology is now considered outdated.

8) according to the level of social economic development:

a) developed (taken into account high level economic development, economic potential, the country’s share in the world economy, economic structure, etc.):

G7 countries (USA, Japan, Germany, France, UK, Italy, Canada);

Smaller countries (Sweden, Spain, etc.);

Countries of “settler capitalism” (Canada, Australia);

CIS (Russia, Ukraine, etc.);

Newly industrialized countries (Korea, Singapore, etc.).

b) developing (transitional states in which socio-economic relations are at the stage of change):

Countries of moderately developed capitalism (Brazil, Mexico, etc.);

Oil exporting countries (UAE, Kuwait);

Countries lagging behind in their development and least developed (Afghanistan, Kenya).

The place of any country in the typology is not constant and can change over time, which is usually associated with the internal and external economic relations of states.

2. Scientific and technological revolution: characteristic features and components.

The scientific and technological revolution (STR) is a period of time during which there is a qualitative leap in the development of science and technology, radically transforming the productive forces of society.

Characteristic features of NTR:

1) universality, all-inclusiveness (transforms all sectors and spheres, the nature of work, life, culture, psychology of people);

2) extraordinary acceleration of scientific and technological transformations (a sharp reduction in the time between a scientific discovery and its implementation in production, faster product renewal);

3) increasing requirements for the level of qualifications of labor resources (increasing the share of mental labor, general intellectualization);

4) orientation towards the use of scientific and technological achievements for military purposes (the emergence of a military-technical revolution).

The characteristic features of the scientific and technological revolution are manifested in all of its components:

1) in science: increased spending on R&D (research and development), qualitative improvement of the education system, increased connections between science and production, and increased knowledge intensity;

2) in engineering and technology:

Introduction of new, mainly physical and chemical technological processes;

Introduction of computers (USA - 1st place in production), robots (Japan - 1st place in production), GPS (flexible production systems): connecting computers, robot systems, modern machines, transport and loading devices - the so-called " deserted factories;

Development of quantum technology (lasers, masers);

Production of new communications equipment (satellites, etc.);

Intensification of old technology methods.

3) in production:

A sharp complication of the structure of the economy (the emergence of new, high-tech industries - aerospace, etc.);

Growth of knowledge-intensive industries (electrical engineering, instrument making, etc.);

Production of new materials (semiconductor, ceramic; optical fiber; use of 20th century metals - beryllium, lithium, titanium);

Development of nuclear energy;

Intensification Agriculture and transport (increasing productivity, transport speed, etc.).

4) in management:

The emergence of cybernetics (the science of control and information);

- “information explosion”;

Creation of automated control systems, computer centers;

Training of managers (heads of modern production facilities).

Lesson 1: Size and distribution of the population of Russia

Demography is a science that deals with problems of population and population reproduction.

In terms of population according to 2008 data (142 million people), Russia ranks 9th in the world. Most full details about the population and its composition in certain moment time is obtained using the population census. The first took place in 1897, from that moment the population increased 2.1 times (from 68 to 142 million people).

In the 20th century, Russia experienced several demographic catastrophes are a sharp slowdown in growth or population decline :

World War I and civil wars – from 21 to 28 million people.

Famine 1921-23

Famine of 1933 – from 5 to 6.6 million.

Repressions of 1937-39

Second World War– from 38 to 47 million people.

Famine 1947

Wars of the second half of the 20th century (Afghan, Chechen, etc.)

Declining birth rate during the economic crises of 1990-2000.

Russia is a sparsely populated country: the average population density (142 million: 17.1 million sq km) is 8.3 people/sq km, and the population is distributed extremely unevenly throughout the country. Causes:

1. historical. Initially, the Eastern Slavs settled the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” from Novgorod to the Dnieper and the area between the Volga and Oka rivers. Then settlement went in the southern and eastern directions.

2. natural and climatic. In Russia, there are two settlement zones (Map 12): the main zone and the Northern zone. The main zone occupies the European part, southern Siberia and Far East. It occupies 34% of the territory and is home to 133 million people. There is a high population density (50 people per sq. km), a large number of large cities (table pp. 40-41). Here continuous type of settlement.

To the north is the Northern zone: 64% of the territory, enormous natural resources, population density of 0.9 people per square meter. km . Settlement here is focal - near transport routes, rivers, near ports and resource bases.

Lesson 2: Population Reproduction

Population reproduction is the production of people by people, a change of generations. This is the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths over a certain time (for example, over 1 year). Reproduction is otherwise called natural population growth.

P – C = E

History knows three types of reproduction:

1. Archetype - existed in the early stages of human life in the conditions of an appropriating economy, when the number of people was small and limited by natural resources. The mortality rate was approximately equal to the birth rate.

2. The traditional type is associated with an agricultural production economy, the birth rate is not regulated, but is characterized by high birth rates and high deaths, especially in children, with a life expectancy of 25-35 years.

3. Modern type - appears in conditions of industrial development, urban growth, and rising living standards; birth rate is regulated. The family decides on the number of children.

The transition from one type of reproduction to another is called the demographic transition or demographic revolution.

Russia is currently experiencing a transition from a traditional to a modern type of reproduction.

The transition has 4 periods:

1. The birth rate is rising, the mortality rate is falling – E is increasing.
2. P decreases, C increases, E decreases.
3. P = C, E = 0
4. C exceeds P, a natural decline is observed.

We already know why mortality is rising. Why is the birth rate falling?

1. Infant mortality has decreased and there is no need to give birth to many children.
2. social security for the elderly (the state takes care of them, not the children).
3. A large number of small and single-parent families have appeared, where raising a large number of children is difficult.
4. the woman works and is not at home much.
5. growth in the level of education and expansion of the range of interests of people.
6. rising costs of raising and educating children.
7. urbanization – growth of cities and urban populations, urban lifestyle .

Lesson 3: Migrations

The population size is influenced not only by natural, but also by mechanical movement of the population - migration. Migration is the movement of people from one area of ​​residence to another.

Highlight:

1. internal migrations – relocation of people within one country. They are:

Pendulum - to work and back,

Seasonal – for vacation, cottage and back,

Temporary – on a visit, on a business trip,

Moving to another place of residence - from city to village, from village to city, from small towns to large ones, from city to city,

They do not have a permanent place of residence.

1. external migrations - relocation from one country to another. There are:

Emigration - leaving the country,

Immigration – entry into another country,

Re-emigration - returning to one's own country.

1. violent– relocation of people against their will: political repression, exile of criminals.

How the population changes in a given territory allows us to determine migration balance (migration increase) is the difference between the number of people arriving in a given territory and the number of people leaving this territory. It can be positive (when there are more arrivals) and negative (when there are fewer arrivals).

Migration has an impact on the life of society. In areas with an influx of migrants, the population grows due to mechanical movement and due to natural growth. Migrants are mainly young people of marriageable age, therefore, in areas of influx of migrants, the birth rate is increasing.

In areas of outflow of migrants, the situation is the opposite - the population is falling, the birth rate is decreasing.

During the period of industrial development of the USSR, Russians moved from Russia to other republics of the USSR to new buildings. After the collapse of the USSR, migration of Russians from the former Soviet republics began, especially from Transcaucasia and Central Asia to Russia (Fig. page 33 .

Inside Russia there is a massive outflow of population from the Far East and northern regions to the center p. 34.

Lesson 4: Demographic situation in Russia

The demographic situation is the ratio of birth rates, deaths, and migrations that have developed in a given area.

State policy aimed at regulating the birth rate (decrease or increase) is called demographic policy.

The demographic situation can be determined The gender and age structure of the population is a pyramid from which one can determine the size of the male and female population, their age, and life expectancy.

Analysis of the sex and age pyramid is the identification of the share:

Persons under working age – 16 years old,

Persons of working age – 16-59 years for men and 16-54 years for women,

Persons over working age – 55 for women and 60 for men.

The pyramid looks different in different regions of Russia. Territories with an outflow of population have a large proportion of old people, and with an influx - children. In the southern regions, both the proportion of children and the proportion of old people are large. Many moved here from the north when they retired. And the share of able-bodied people here is small.

There are a lot of old people around Moscow and St. Petersburg. (Why? - moved to the capitals). There are many children in the North Caucasus due to the high birth rate.

As of 2008, children make up 18.1%, the working-age population - 61.3%, old people - 20.5%. Lifespan:

Men women

2000 59 years 72.2

2008 62 74.2

Recently, the “maternal family” has become widespread in Russia. Only 2/3 of families have children, the average number of children in a family is 1.63.60% of Russians do not have children and do not plan to have them. The number of illegitimate children is growing.

Democracy from 2001 to 2009 is as follows: the birth rate is increasing, the death rate is decreasing, but the birth rate is even higher, so there is a population decline.

Russians believe that the reasons for low birth rates are:

Low standard of living and high prices – 20%

Small child benefits -19%

Few kindergartens – 17%

Bad medicine – 13%

No housing – 8%

Expensive education and treatment – ​​7%.

Main causes of death in Russia:

Diseases – 85.5%

Alcohol – 3.2%

Suicides – 2%

Road accidents – 1.9%

Murders – 1.2%.

Based on this, the state’s democratic policy is aimed at increasing the birth rate:

1. Payments upon the birth of a child.

2. Child support assistance for low-income families.

3. Maternity capital for the 2nd child through a mortgage, education, increase in pension (2006 - 250 thousand, 2009 - 312 thousand, 2012 - 408 thousand)

4. It is planned to revive the orders “Mother Heroine” and “Mother Glory”.

Lesson 5: Settlement and urbanization

Resettlement is: 1. settlement of a given territory; 2. a set of settlements in a given territory.

A populated area (settlement) is a compactly built-up area with everything necessary for people to live and work.

There are two types of settlements: urban and rural .

Ancient Rus' was a country of cities. The Scandinavians called her Gaidarika. Before the Mongol invasion, there were 300 cities in Rus', in 2008 - 1096. In Russia, cities are considered settlements with a population of more than 12 thousand people who are not employed in agriculture. Based on population, cities are:

Small – up to 20 thousand.

Medium – up to 100 thousand.

Large – up to 250 thousand.

Large – up to 500 thousand.

The largest – up to 1 million.

Millionaire cities.

In 1930 in Russia there were 2 millionaire cities (Moscow and Leningrad), in 2007 there were 11. In big cities 40% of Russia's population lives.

Cities perform 2 functions (role in society):

1. city services - servicing the city population (housing and communal services, services, industrial goods, transport),

2. city-forming – maintenance of the area around the city.

Types of cities:

1. central places (perform many functions): the capital, centers of republics, territories, regions, districts.
2. industry centers: industrial, transport, ports and railway junctions, tourism, resorts, cities of science.

A group of closely located cities is called an urban agglomeration. The cities in them are united by labor (they live in one city, work in another), cultural and everyday (services), production (raw materials) and other connections.

In the east and north of Russia there are many urban settlements - settlements with a population of more than 3 thousand, of which 85% are not employed in agriculture. There are 1,300 urban-type settlements in Russia.

A rural settlement is a settlement outside the city. These include towns, villages, villages. Unlike the city, they are smaller in area and crowded. Cities are located closer to trade routes, sources of raw materials and markets for goods; villages - to land, water and forest resources. The population of the villages is mainly employed in agriculture.

The main functions of rural settlements: production of food and agricultural raw materials. 39 million people live in Russian villages.

Urbanization is the process of spreading the urban lifestyle, the growth of cities and the urban population. Russia is a highly urbanized country: the urban population is 73%.

Lesson 6: National and religious composition of the population of Russia

Russia is a multinational country. According to the 2002 census, 160 peoples live in it. These are peoples living within our country, peoples from the former Soviet republics (Belarusians, Ukrainians, Tajiks, etc.), peoples from neighboring countries (Germans, Poles, Jews, Greeks, etc.)

Each nation is different in language, customs, traditions, and culture. Most of the peoples of Russia belong to 4 language families:

Indo-European – 87%

Altai – 8%

Caucasian – 2%

Ural - 2%.

Language families are divided into language groups. The most numerous is Slavic, the most numerous people in it are Russians - 80% of the population.

The peoples of Russia do not live in isolation from each other. They communicate, cooperate, marry each other. It leads to assimilation - the “dissolution” of some peoples among others. For example, only 33% of Mordovians live in Mordovia, and 9% of Karelians live in Karelia. The rest live in other regions of Russia.

Russian is spoken by 99.8% of Russians and 92% of peoples of other nationalities in Russia, therefore it is the state language of the Russian Federation.

Historically, the leading religions in Russia have been Orthodox Christianity and Islam, but there is also Buddhism, paganism, Catholicism and Judaism. 90% of all believers are Orthodox.

Lesson 7: Labor market and employment

Labor resources are the population capable of working in the country's economy. Their main part is the population of working age (from 16 to 54 for women and 59 for men). But not all people at this age are capable of working: disabled people, preferential pensioners, students, those employed in personal and household work, etc. The labor force also includes working pensioners and teenagers.

The economically active population is the employed population and the unemployed who are looking for work.

The labor market is the relationship between the demand for labor and its supply.

Demand - how much labor is needed in a given specialty at a given time.

Supply - how much labor is available at a given time in a given specialty.

Options:

Demand > supply – there is not enough labor (shortage), and the employer can increase wages.

Demand< предложения – рабочей силы избыток, часть не получит работы и станет безработными, работодатель уменьшает зарплату.

Demand = supply, as many workers as needed, wages do not change.

There can be no economic development without unemployment. The state’s task is to quickly conduct professional retraining and create jobs in promising industries.

Unemployment depends on:

1. on the demographic situation: it is higher where natural increase is high (more people are born than retire). It is lower in areas of new development (the Far North) - the population is mostly newcomers and, not finding work, they return to their homeland.

2. on the structure of the economy: unemployment is higher where there is a decline in production (military-industrial complex, light industry, mechanical engineering), lower in the manufacturing industry and agro-industrial complex.

The situation when in most regions of Russia there are more people looking for work than there are jobs, leads to competition between workers. Employers place higher demands on the workforce: knowledge, skills, discipline, organization, creative approach to work, self-education.