How is the road indicated on the site plan? Symbols on the map. Terrain and its depiction on topographic maps and plans

The symbols on a map or plan are a kind of their alphabet, by which they can be read, find out the nature of the area, the presence of certain objects, and evaluate the landscape. As a rule, symbols on the map convey common features with those existing in reality geographical objects. Ability to decipher cartographic symbols indispensable when making hiking trips, especially to distant and unfamiliar areas.

All objects indicated on the plan can be measured on a map scale to represent their actual size. Thus, the symbols on a topographic map are its “legend”, their decoding for the purpose of further orientation on the terrain. Homogeneous objects are indicated by the same color or stroke.

All outlines of objects located on the map, according to the method of graphic representation, are divided into several types:

• Area
• Linear
• Spot

The first type consists of objects that occupy a large area on a topographic map, which are expressed by areas enclosed within boundaries in accordance with the scale of the map. These are objects such as lakes, forests, swamps, fields.

Line symbols are outlines in the form of lines and can be seen on a map scale along the length of an object. These are rivers, railways or roads, power lines, clearings, streams, etc.

Dotted outlines (out-of-scale) indicate small objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale. These can be either individual cities or trees, wells, pipes and other small individual objects.

Symbols are applied in order to have as complete an idea as possible about the specified area, but this does not mean that absolutely all the smallest details of a real individual area or city have been identified. The plan indicates only those objects that are of great importance for the national economy, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, and military personnel.

Types of symbols on maps

Conventions used on military maps

To recognize map signs, you need to be able to decipher them. Conventional symbols are divided into scale, non-scale and explanatory.

• Scale symbols indicate local objects that can be expressed in size on the scale of a topographic map. Their graphic designation appears in the form of a small dotted line or thin line. The area inside the border is filled conventional icons, which correspond to the presence of real objects in this area. Using scale marks on a map or plan, you can measure the area and dimensions of a real topographical object, as well as its outline.
• Off-scale symbols indicate objects that cannot be displayed on a plan scale, the size of which cannot be judged. These are some separate buildings, wells, towers, pipes, kilometer posts, etc. Out-of-scale symbols do not indicate the dimensions of an object located on the plan, so it is difficult to determine the actual width or length of a pipe, elevator or free-standing tree. The purpose of off-scale symbols is to accurately indicate a specific object, which is always important when orienting yourself while traveling in an unfamiliar area. The exact location of the specified objects is carried out by the main point of the symbol: this can be the center or the lower middle point of the figure, the vertex right angle, lower center of the figure, symbol axis.
• Explanatory signs serve to disclose information about scale and non-scale designations. They give additional characteristics to objects located on a plan or map, for example, indicating the direction of river flow with arrows, designating the forest type with special signs, the load capacity of the bridge, the nature of the road surface, the thickness and height of the trees in the forest.

Besides, topographic plans place on themselves other designations that serve as additional characteristics for some of the specified objects:

• Signatures

Some signatures are used in full, others in abbreviated form. The names of settlements, rivers and lakes are fully deciphered. Abbreviated captions are used to indicate more detailed characteristics some objects.

• Digital legend

They are used to indicate the width and length of rivers, roads and railways, transmission lines, the height of points above sea level, the depth of fords, etc. The standard map scale designation is always the same and depends only on the size of this scale (for example, 1:1000, 1:100, 1:25000, etc.).

In order to make it as easy as possible to navigate a map or plan, symbols are indicated in different colors. More than twenty different shades are used to distinguish even the smallest objects, from intensely colored areas to less vibrant ones. To make the map easy to read, there is a table at the bottom with a breakdown of the color codes. So, usually water bodies are indicated by blue, cyan, turquoise; forest objects in green; terrain – brown; city ​​neighborhoods and small settlements– gray-olive; highways and highways - orange; state borders are in purple, neutral areas are in black. Moreover, neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and structures are indicated in orange, and neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant structures and improved dirt roads are indicated in yellow.

The unified system of symbols for maps and site plans is based on the following provisions:

• Each graphic sign always corresponds to a specific type or phenomenon.
• Each sign has its own clear pattern.
• If the map and plan differ in scale, objects will not differ in their designation. The only difference will be in their sizes.
• Drawings of real terrain objects usually indicate an associative connection with it, therefore they reproduce a profile or appearance these objects.

To establish an associative connection between a sign and an object, there are 10 types of composition formation:

MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY INSTITUTION OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH TOURISM

AND EXCURSIONS" BRYANSK

LESSON SUMMARY ON THE TOPIC:

DEVELOPED: teacher d/o

Stasishina N.V.

Bryansk - 2014

Plan - outline

classes on the topic

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

Purpose of the lesson: Give an idea of ​​the symbols of topographic maps.

Lesson objectives:

To familiarize students with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

Involve circle members in systematic sports activities;

Develop skills in teamwork and joint search for solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

students' attention;

Equipment: 1. posters with symbols.

2. cards with test tasks.

Type of classes: Learning new material.

Literature: 1. Aleshin V.M. “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Serebrenikov A.V., “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, Ngorny A. - “Tourism” ( teaching aid), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - “Tourist’s Guide to Topography” - Krasnodar., Publishing House, 1973

6. Kuprin A., “Topography for everyone” - M., Nedra, 1976.

Lesson plan

Preparatory part. (3)

New topic explained: (45)

Presentation new information.

3. Consolidation of the studied material. (8)

4. Summing up the lesson. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

Progress of the lesson.

1. Preparatory part:

Students take their places at their desks and prepare writing materials.

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of the lesson, explains the requirements and lesson plan, and checks those present.

Note

to be ready for

occupation, uniform

clothes for those involved.

2. Explanation of a new topic:

Statement of new information:

Today in class we will look at new topic:

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

The map has many names printed in ordinary words, numbers, lines and many icons of different colors, sizes and shapes. This topographical symbols, which indicate local objects on the map.

What are conventional signs?

Conventional signs are symbols with the help of which the actual terrain is depicted on the map.

Topographers came up with special symbols so that they would be as similar as possible to the local objects themselves, and would correspond in size to them on the map scale. So, for example, a forest on topographic maps is depicted in green (after all, it is actually green); houses and other buildings are depicted as rectangles, since when viewed from above, they really almost always have the shape of rectangles; rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, since water, reflecting the sky, also appears blue to us. But it is not always possible to accurately depict every local object on the map in terms of shape, color and size. Let's take, for example, a highway whose width is 20 m. On a hundred thousandth map (1 mm 100 m) such a road would have to be depicted with a line one-fifth of a millimeter thick, and on a map of scale 1:200000 this line would have to be drawn even further thinner - 0.1 mm. Small in size but important local objects are depicted on topographic maps special off-scale signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the actual sizes of local objects, reduced according to the scale of a particular map. For example, a small spring on the river bank is depicted on the map as a blue circle with a diameter of a whole millimeter; In addition, highways and other major roads are colored on maps so that they, as they say, are striking to everyone who picks up a topographic map. For example, an asphalt highway is depicted on a map with a bright red line.

The symbols used in drawing up sports maps for orienteering competitions are somewhat different from topographical ones. Their main purpose is to give the athlete the information about the terrain that he needs when choosing a path of movement. These are signs showing the passability of forests, swamps, paths, etc. So, for ease of reading while running, on a sports map, unlike a topographic map, it is not the forest that is painted over, but the open space - fields, meadows, clearings in the forest. All topographical symbols can be divided into four types:

1) linear- these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects that themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Students write down a new topic in their notebook.

2) curly- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) area - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. Area signs consist of two

elements: contour and sign filling the contour;

4) explanatory- these are signs characterizing the forest, names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

this is the width of the highway, the length, width and load-carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are non-scale, and area signs, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true sizes of local objects. It is easier to study and remember signs by getting to know them in groups, which are formed according to the type of local objects:

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group No. 2 - settlements, buildings;

group No. 3 - hydraulic network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

Group No. 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven most important topographical signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and unpaved roads.

Highway are called roads that have hard artificialcovering - stone (cobblestones, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is out-of-scale. Every SCO signseine road an additional sign is given on the map- alphabetic digital characteristic consisting of three elements: numbers, one more number in brackets and a letter. The first number indicates the width of the highway surface in meters (that is, paved, pavednirovanny or stone-covered part of the highway), and in bracketsa figure is given indicating the width of the entire highway surface in meters, that is, together with the roadsides. The letter denotes the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter “A” is put, if it is concrete, then the letter “B”, and if the highway is covered with buskier or paving stones (i.e. stone), then the letter “K”.

The next type of highways is ground, earthen roads without artificial surface. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads), country roads, and so on.

called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but has a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the sides and a gravel or crushed stone fill compacted with a roller.

Nobody specially lays paths; they arise on their own.fight from the constant walking of people. In densely populated areasRarely can an entire network go in the same direction at oncepaths that then close, then again diverge. So manyIt is impossible to depict the number of paths on the map, so the groupthe trail is shown by one conditional trail in the corresponding directionlenition. Only long enough and permanently existing (sometimes called “centuries old”) trails are markedon large scale maps. The trail sign is almost like thisthe same as a simple dirt road - a thin black intermittentdashed line, but every strokehas a shorter length.

Railways previously iso flogged with two thin blackparallel lines, clearance between which was filled byalternating black and white shanecks. Now signis a continuousthick black line. Two koRotkikh stroke across the signa railway means that it ishas two tracks. If there is only one track, then one line is added. If the cross stroke has anothera small stroke parallel to the railway sign, then I know that Read that the road is electrified.

At the railway station sign, a black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, wooden bridges are built; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On railways, large bridges over large rivers are always metal, and over small rivers - concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are shaped and non-scale signs.
Where a bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are broken (Fig. 37). An explanatory sign for bridges is the alphanumeric characteristics of the bridge. For example: DZ =
(24 - 5)/10. Here the letter “D” denotes the material from which the bridge is built - wood (if the bridge is concrete, the letter is written

"TO"). Coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge above the surface of the water in the river. In the numerator of the fraction, the first digit, 24, is the length of the bridge in meters, the second digit, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the load capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, what is the maximum weight of the machine the bridge is designed for design.

Bridges are often also made on hiking trails, but very small ones - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (residents often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes just two logs laid over a river from bank to bank. The topographic sign for a pedestrian bridge is very simple.

Very often the roads intersect with small dry

ravines, hollows through which streams flow only in the spring, when the snow melts. When building a road, an embankment is made across the ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid for

Students write down in their notebooks.

Symbols are sketched in a notebook

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved dirt road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water flow. Such pipes have their own topographic sign.

Group No. 2. Settlements, individual buildings

This group contains fifteen most important topographical signs. The settlements themselves - villages, auls, hamlets, towns, cities - are complex formations, consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographic sign of a populated area - it consists of topographic signs of various local objects that make up what is called a populated area.

Separate residential and non-residential buildings are depicted by an out-of-scale black rectangle. If the structure is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, then the structure is depicted as a black figure, similar in shape and size (on the map scale) to the structure itself. That is, this is already a large-scale sign. Often, at some distance from a village or town, there is a residential building with its own vegetable garden, orchard, and outbuildings.

For such a separate yard, or farm, there is a special topographic sign.

In populated areas, there are neighborhoods with a predominance of wooden (non-fire-resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. Topographic sign quarter of the village limited to thin black lines. Inside it, a background is either yellow (if wooden buildings predominate in the block), or orange color(if the block is dominated by fire-resistant stone buildings). On the background there are black rectangles - out-of-scale signs of individual houses, buildings or large-scale signs of individual large buildings. Next to the signs of some buildings their characteristics are given. For example: "SHK." - school, “SICK.” - hospital, “EL-ST.” - power plant, "SAN" - sanatorium.

The topographic fence sign is the thinnest black line on the map. This sign is often found on maps in the form of a broken closed line, which indicates some kind of fenced area.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted on a small-scale map, then it is necessary to use an out-of-scale sign of a plant (factory) with a pipe (meaning a tall pipe that can serve as a landmark visible at a fairly large distance) or without a pipe. Next to the sign is an abbreviated explanatory sign characterizing the type of product manufactured by the enterprise. For example: “brick” - brick factory, “flour.” - flour mill, “boom.” - paper mill, "sah." - sugar factory, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, then the usual large-scale signs are used, showing all or almost all buildings and structures on its territory: a fence, a factory building, workshops, warehouses, etc., while a half-blackened one is also placed here.

diagonally, an out-of-scale plant sign.

pipe under the road

Separate buildings

Khutor

Urban development

Plants and factories

Inside a populated area there may bechurch, monument or a monument cemetery . A cemetery can be small or large, with or without trees. PoeTherefore, to depict a cemetery, both large-scale andand an off-scale sign. On hikes and travels you can findeven in a deep forest there is a separate yard where he lives

forester and his family. Forester's house has its own topographic sign - an ordinary non-scale sign of a separate building with the inscription “forest.”

Important landmarks can be the various buildings basheared type- water towers, fire towers, silos. They are indicated by one out-of-scale sign, next to which an explanation is often given of what kind of tower it is.

Good landmarks are also high wooden towers, most often standing on the tops of hills, with an observation platform at the very top, where a ladder leads. These are the so-called triangulation points(they are called trigopunks for short). Next to the trigopoint sign on the map there is always some number that indicates the height of the base of the tower above the level of the Baltic Sea in meters and centimeters.

A sign resembling bricks stacked on top of each other - peat mining, that is, the place where peat is mined.

And the last of this group are very important local objects, the topographical signs of which you need to know, these are communication lines and power lines (power lines).

Communication lines are indicated on all maps, regardless of the nature of the connection, by a thin black line with black dots on it. The communication line sign is drawn on the map as the communication line itself goes on the ground.

Power lines(power lines) are on wooden poles or on metal and concrete supports. The power line sign consists of a thin black line on which dots or dashes with arrows are located at intervals of one centimeter.

If the power line is laid on wooden poles, then dots are placed, if on metal or concrete supports - short, thick lines.

Group No. 3. Hydrography

There are 8 basic signs in this group that you need to know.

While traveling on foot, tourists constantly “communicate” with the surface waters of the earth - they set up camp on the banks of rivers and lakes, lay routes along rivers, ford them, overcome swamps, ditches, and use springs to cook food over fires.

One of the main topographical signs of this group is river sign- can be both large-scale and non-scale (across the width of the river). The sign of a wide, large river consists of two elements - the outline of the coastlines of the river (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn with a thin blue line, and the fill sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space occupied by water.

Church

monument

forester's house

tower

trig point

peat mining

Communication line

Power lines

big river

Out-of-scale sign small river or stream is a simple thin blue line, which, however, gradually thickens from source to mouth.

There are streams that “live” only in spring and early summer, and then the water in them disappears. This peresflowing streams and rivers. The sign of such streams and rivers is a thin blue, but not solid, but broken line

Information about where the river flows and what the speed of the flow is will also be provided by a topographic map with an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and numbers placed in the middle of the arrow and showing the flow speed in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pond are depicted in the same way: the contours of the banks are shown with a thin blue line, and the water mirror is shown with a blue background.

In densely populated areas, wells located in populated areas are shown only on very large-scale maps (terrain plans). Sign well- a blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(springs, springs) are also shown on topographic maps only when they do not dry up and have a significant amount of water. The sign of the source (spring) is a blue circle. If a constant stream flows from a spring, it is shown with the appropriate sign. If the water soon goes back into the ground, the stream sign is not shown.

Swamps There are two types: passable and difficult to pass (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous to move and it is better to avoid it. Accordingly, there are two signs of swamps: short blue horizontal strokes, grouped in the shape of irregular rhombuses - this is a passable swamp, but solid horizontal blue strokes - an impassable swamp. The boundaries of the swamps are outlined by a black dotted line.

And the last sign of this group is ditches, the signs of which are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but its shape is sharply different from it: the line of the stream is always smoothly winding, while the lines of ditches are broken with long, smooth sections without bends.

Group No. 4. Vegetation

This group includes 15 topographical signs, most of which are area and, therefore, large-scale signs.

The first sign is land boundaries, that is, areas occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. Every forest has an edge, and every field, meadow, and swamp has an edge. These are their boundaries, which are shown on topographic maps with a small dotted black line. But the boundaries of the land are not always shown with a dotted line: if there is a road right along the edge of the forest or along the edge of the arable land, meadow, then the sign of this road replaces the boundary sign, that is, the road itself already delimits the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the swamp, etc. d. If a garden or cemetery is surrounded by a fence, then the fence is the boundary.

When carried out land boundaries with a dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, on both sides of the border a filling sign is given - a background and other icons that show what exactly the contour is occupied with, what kind of vegetation is in it.

Sign forests- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest growth) - lightlo green. The same is depictedparks in populated areas.
It is important to know not only that this is a forest, but also what it is like - what kind of things are in itthe types of trees that grow, how densely they grow.
There are special explanatory signs for this
- characteristics tree stand. These signs representare images of small trees,signatures and numbers next to them. If in this forest(or parts of the forest) are dominated by coniferous trees,small Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous trees predominate - small birch trees, whose right sidethe crowns are made blackened. If the forest is mixed, both a Christmas tree andbirch tree Abbreviated signature on the leftsigns indicate what types of needlesTrees and deciduous trees predominate here.

The fraction to the right of these icons means the following: the numerator of the fraction is the average height of the trees in this forest in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of the trunks at the level of a person’s head in meters, and the coefficient behind the fraction is the average distance between the trees (that is, the density forests).

Found in forests clearings- long forest corridors. Such clearings are cut (cut) specifically so that the forest is better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, the clearings are made mutually perpendicular: some run from north to south, others cross them from west to east. Clearings come in different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes they are very wide - up to 50 meters or more. Such large clearings are made to lay gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways and railways, and high-voltage power lines through forests.

Clearings divide the forest into blocks, and each forest block has its own number. At the intersections of the clearings there are quarter poles, on the edges of which these numbers are written in paint. Not every clearing has a road; there are very overgrown clearings, which are even more difficult to navigate than straight through the forest. But the topographic sign of the clearing exactly corresponds to the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black dashed line. A number indicating its width in meters is also placed here.

For young growth forests, in addition to the light green background, an additional fill sign is used: small black circles go in rows along the background, but their rows are located at 45° to the map frames .

Orchards are also depicted with a green background with rows of small black circles, but here their rows go at 90° to the frames of the card.

Forest deforestation shown on a white background. The mark that fills the contour of the cutting is black vertical strokes arranged in a checkerboard pattern with a short black horizontal stroke at the lower end.

Sign woodlands also, as a rule, located on a white background in the form of black circles with a tail at the bottom, which is always directed to the east.

Large-scale topographic maps show separate groupsbushes in the form of a black circle with three thickened black dots along the outer edge. This is a non-scale sign. If the bushes occupy significant areas of the area, they are already shown as a contour (dotted line), which is filled inside with a light green background, and circles with three dots are scattered across the background in a random order.

Narrow stripes of forest are depicted on maps without a green background as a chain of black circles. This is an out-of-scale forest belt sign. If the forest strip is wide enough for a given map scale, then it is depicted with a regular forest sign. There are also narrow strips of bushes (hedges). They are represented by an off-scale sign - a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened dots.

Along the roads there are often specially planted trees, forming a kind of green corridor along the road (alley). These are linings that are shown on maps as small black circles on the sides of the road.

Freestanding trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have the significance of landmarks (that is, clearly visible from all sides at a sufficiently large distance), they are also indicated on topographic maps by their off-scale sign .

Meadows have their own sign: small black quotation marks are placed in a checkerboard pattern inside the contour delimiting the meadow. Meadows can occupy very large spaces and can stretch in narrow ribbons in the floodplains of rivers. Small clearings in the forest are also meadows. The sign of a passable swamp is almost always combined with the sign of a meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

Along the edges of the villages there are vegetable gardens The vegetable garden sign has in the recent past undergone major change: the old sign was oblique shading with solid and dashed lines in black, going in one direction or the other. New vegetable garden sign - gray background.

The last sign of this group, sign arable land,

This is a white background with a black dotted outline.

Group No. 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely flat. On any plain there are always at least small elevations and depressions: hills , mounds, depressions, ravines, pits, cliffs along river banks. All this taken together represents the topography of the area. Relief is set of irregularities earth's surface. All irregularities can be easily divided into two types - convexity and concavity. Convexities are considered to be positive landforms, and concavities are considered negative landforms. Positive forms of relief include: mountain, hill (hillock), ridge, hill, mound, dune (sandy moving hill); to negative - basin, lowland, valley, gorge, ravine, beam, ravine, hole. Forms: reliefs always alternate in space: every positive form smoothly or abruptly turns into a negative one, and a negative one sharply or smoothly turns into a neighboring positive one.

It is customary to share flat terrain according to the nature of the relief by three type:lightly crossed, moderately crossed and strongly crossed terrain. The degree of ruggedness depends both on the frequency of alternation of convexities and concavities (ascents and descents), and on their height and steepness: where the “ruggedness” of the relief is stronger, that is, where ravines, hills, basins, gullies are more common, and where they are especially high (deep) and their slopes are steeper, the terrain is considered very rugged.

Each relief form has three parts (elements): the top or gold (for positive forms), the bottom (for negative forms), the bottom (for positive ones), the edge or edge (for negative ones) and the slopes or walls for both.

Slopes- a common element of both negative and positive relief forms. They are steep, steep (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on the predominant slopes of the hills and lowlands in a given area, we say: there is a soft and smooth relief here, or there is a sharp, hard relief here.

There are two main ways to convey relief forms on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by so-called horizontal lines - thin brown lines, and sharp, hard forms - by a special line with jagged edges. These teeth, like any triangles, have a base and vertices. Where the tops of the teeth are directed, the slope descends there - it goes down almost a vertical cliff. To make it easy to distinguish a steep slope of natural origin from artificial cliffs on the map, jagged lines of cliffs are made in two colors - brown (natural cliffs along river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankments, dams, quarry slopes, etc. .). Next to the cliff signs there is a number indicating the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and mounds can be naturalmi and artificial. They can bevery deep (high), but small in area, and then they have todepict out-of-scale on mapssigns. If they are significantny dimensions in area, then showing them indicated by scale marks (Fig. 74). The number next to the sign of the mound and pit also indicates their depth and height.

Embankments and excavations along the road are also depicted on maps as a jagged line, but in black color, since they are artificial structures. Where the teeth are directed with their sharp ends away from the railway or highway bed, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed on the contrary, towards the road bed, along the excavation. The numbers indicate the highest heights of these slopes.

At the sign career, As a rule, an abbreviated caption is given on the maps, specifying what exactly is being mined in this quarry.

More complex rigid forms of relief are ravines, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the influence of soil erosion by streams of rainwater and during snowmelt. Ravines are a “living” phenomenon; they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine is “young” (it is called ravine), its slopes are very steep, but gradually they crumble - they flatten out, become overgrown with turf, bushes, the ravine stops growing and turns into beam (logs)well, a hollow). A ravine has a top, bottom and mouth. From one ravine to the sides can have side ravines with their tops - their called screwdrivers ravine But screwdrivers, in turn, canmultiply, forming intricate branching.

Small River

Drying river

Sea, lake

well

spring, key

clearings

Orchard

felling open forest

bushes

Casing

Meadows

Hard landforms

Pits and mounds

Embankments and excavations

Career

Two typical representative soft relief forms - antipodes Hill(tubercle) and basin(depression). You cannot show them with a jagged line on the map, since their slopes are gentle and smooth.

If you horizontally “cut”, dissect the figure of a hill into even “slices”, then the entire slope of the hill will be surrounded by several closed lines of “cuts” - horizontals. And if you then draw these lines on paper, you will get a figure that gives an idea of ​​​​the relief (Fig. 78). You just need to use short strokes on the horizontal lines to show in which direction the slopes go down, since exactly the same figure will be obtained if you cut through the basin with horizontal planes. Such strokes, showing the direction down from the horizontal, are called berg strokes or slope indicators (in German, “berg” means mountain).

This method of depicting soft landforms on maps andIt's called the method of contours. Beyond the beginning of the secants of the relief horizonThe plane of the Baltic Sea level is adopted for the tal planes.The next cutting plane is drawn, for example, 10 m higherlevel of the Baltic Sea, after another 10 m in height there is a second cutting plane, then, 10 m above it, a third (already at a height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h) between planes cutting the relief is called the height of the relief section and can be different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each cutting plane will give on the map its own closed relief section line - a horizontal, and all together they will give a complete drawing of contours - a general picture of the terrain. But since there will be a lot of contour lines on the map, in order not to get confused in them, to make it easier to distinguish and trace them, we decided to highlight some of the contour lines a little - to make every fifth one thicker. Then the contour lines on the map, as they say, are better readable. Thus, with a section height of, for example, 5 m, the thickened horizontal will be the horizontal located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; the next thickened one is 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some horizontal lines, in convenient places, numbers are written in brown, which indicate the height of this horizontal line in meters above sea level, or, as is customary in topography to call this value, the horizontal mark. The very number of the mark of one or another horizontal line, in addition to the berg strokes, helps to understand in which direction the slope goes down: where this number has a bottom, that’s where the slope goes down, and where there’s a top, that’s where the slope goes up. Marks, in addition, are placed on the tops of mountains and hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, will be depicted on the map as contours located close to each other, and the other, flat side of the hill, on the contrary, will be depicted as sparse contours.

Between the tops of two neighboring hills that have a common base, there is always a depression. This depression is called a saddle. And under the saddle on
On the slopes of hills, gullies and ravines most often appear - hard forms of relief are always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group No. 6. Special signs

They try to place the labels of names on maps so that they do not cover important objects, and at the same time, they still have to make, for example, a gap in the signs of the road network where the signature of a settlement or the name of some other place is superimposed on the road sign local subject.

Signatures of the names of settlements are always made horizontally (direction west - east) in different fonts - in some places the letters of the inscription are thicker and taller, in others they are thinner and have a slight slope. Through such a difference in font, certain information is communicated to the map reader: approximate
number of inhabitants in a locality. Where there are more residents, there is a larger signature. Under each name of a settlement there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (yards) in this village or town. Next to these numbers there are letters in some places

“SS”, indicating that in this locality there is a village council, that is, a local government authority.

On their homemade maps and diagrams, tourists often enter special symbols showing the route traveled by the tourist group and its direction, travel routes, places of overnight and day stays, places of daytime stops for lunch, and places of interest along the route.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

1. What are symbols?

2. How many groups can topographic symbols be divided into?

3. List these groups?

4. List what is considered linear?

5. List what applies to areal types?

6. How many groups are topographic signs divided into?

4. Summing up the lesson.

The teacher draws conclusions, evaluates the activities of the students, and gives instructions for the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells further plans for the coming week.

Topographic maps and plans depict various terrain objects: the outlines of settlements, gardens, vegetable gardens, lakes, rivers, road lines, power transmission lines. The collection of these objects is called situation. The situation is depicted conventional signs.

Standard symbols, mandatory for all institutions and organizations preparing topographic maps and plans, are established by the Federal Service of Geodesy and Cartography of the Russian Federation and are published either separately for each scale or for a group of scales.

Conventional signs are divided into five groups:

1. Area symbols(Fig. 22) are used to fill the areas of objects (for example, arable land, forests, lakes, meadows); they consist of a sign of the boundary of an object (a dotted line or a thin solid line) and images or conventional coloring that fill it; for example, symbol 1 shows a birch forest; numbers (20/0.18) *4 characterize the tree stand, (m): numerator - height, denominator - trunk thickness, 4 - distance between trees.

Rice. 22. Area symbols:

1 - forest; 2 - cutting; 3 - meadow; 4 - vegetable garden; 5 - arable land; 6 - orchard.

2. Linear symbols(Fig. 23) show linear objects (roads, rivers, communication lines, power transmission lines), the length of which is expressed on a given scale. On conventional images various characteristics of objects are given; for example, on highway 7 (m) the following are shown: the width of the carriageway is 8 and the width of the entire road is 12; on single-track railway 8: +1,800 - embankment height, - 2,900 - excavation depth.

Rice. 23. Linear symbols

7 - highway; 8 - Railway; 9 - communication line; 10 - power line; 11 - main pipeline (gas).

3. Off-scale symbols(Fig. 24) are used to depict objects whose dimensions are not expressed at a given map or plan scale (bridges, kilometer posts, wells, geodetic points). As a rule, off-scale signs determine the location of objects, but their size cannot be judged from them. The signs give various characteristics, for example, the length of 17 m and the width of 3 m of wooden bridge 12, elevation 393,500 points of the geodetic network 16.

Rice. 24. Off-scale symbols

12 - wooden bridge; 13 - windmill; 14 - plant, factory;

15 - kilometer pole, 16 - geodetic network point

4. Explanatory symbols are digital and alphabetic inscriptions characterizing objects, for example, the depth and speed of river flows, load capacity and width of bridges, forest species, average height and thickness of trees, width of highways. These signs are placed on the main areal, linear, and non-scale areas.

5. Special symbols(Fig. 25) are established by the relevant departments of the national economy; they are used to draw up specialized maps and plans of this industry, for example, signs for survey plans of oil and gas fields - oil field structures and installations, wells, field pipelines.

Rice. 25. Special symbols

17 - route; 18 - water supply; 19 - sewerage; 20 - water intake column; 21 - fountain

To give a map or plan greater clarity, colors are used to depict various elements: for rivers, lakes, canals, wetlands - blue; forests and gardens - green; highways - red; improved dirt roads - orange. The rest of the situation is shown in black. On survey plans, underground communications (pipelines, cables) are colored.

Terrain and its depiction on topographic maps and plans

Terrain is a set of irregularities on the physical surface of the Earth.

Depending on the nature of the relief, the terrain is divided into mountainous, hilly, and flat. All the variety of landforms is usually reduced to the following basic forms (Fig. 26):

Rice. 26. Basic landforms

1. Mountain - a dome-shaped or conical elevation of the earth's surface. Main elements of the mountain:

a) apex - the highest part, ending either in an almost horizontal platform called a plateau, or a sharp peak;

b) slopes or slopes diverging from the top in all directions;

c) sole - the base of the hill, where the slopes pass into the surrounding plain.

The small mountain is called hill or fell; artificial hill called mound.

2. Basin- a cup-shaped, concave part of the earth's surface, or unevenness opposite the mountain.

In the basin there are:

a) bottom - the lowest part (usually a horizontal platform);

b) cheeks - lateral slopes diverging from the bottom in all directions;

c) margin - the border of the cheeks, where the basin passes into the surrounding plain. The small basin is called depression or pit.

3. Ridge- a hill elongated in one direction and formed by two opposite slopes. The line where the stingrays meet is called ridge axis or watershed line. The descending parts of the spine line are called passes.

4. Hollow- a recess extended in one direction; shape opposite to the ridge. In the hollow there are two slopes and a thalweg, or water connecting line, which often serves as the bed of a stream or river.

A large wide hollow with a slightly inclined thalweg is called valley; a narrow ravine with steep slopes that quickly descend and a thalweg cutting through the ridge is called gorge or gorge. If it is located in a plain, it is called ravine. A small hollow with almost vertical slopes is called beam, pothole or gulley.

5. Saddle- a meeting place of two or more opposite hills, or opposite valleys.

6. Ledge or terrace- an almost horizontal platform on the slope of a ridge or mountain.

The top of the mountain, the bottom of the basin, the lowest point of the saddle are characteristic relief points.

The watershed and thalweg represent characteristic relief lines.

Currently, for large-scale plans, only two methods of depicting the relief are accepted: signing marks and drawing contour lines.

Horizontally called a closed curved line of terrain, all points of which have the same height above sea level or above a conventional level surface.

Horizontal lines are formed like this (Fig. 27). Let the hill be washed by the surface of the sea with an elevation equal to zero. The curve formed by the intersection of the water surface with a hill will be a horizontal line with an elevation equal to zero. If we mentally dissect a mountain, for example, by two level surfaces with a distance between them h = 10 m, then the traces of the section of the hill with these surfaces will give horizontal lines with marks of 10 and 20 m. If we project the traces of the section of these surfaces onto a horizontal plane in a reduced form, we will obtain a plan of the hill in horizontals.

Rice. 27. Image of the relief with horizontal lines

On the horizontal plan, the elevations and depressions have the same appearance. To distinguish a hill from a depression, short strokes are placed in the downward direction of the slope perpendicular to the horizontal lines - slope indicators. These strokes are called berg strokes. Lowering and raising the terrain can be established and the signatures of contour lines on the plan. An image of the main relief forms is presented in Figure 28.

In cases where the elements of the slope are not reflected by the section of the main horizontal lines, half-horizontals and quarter-horizontals are drawn on the plan at the height of half and a quarter of the main section.

For example, the protrusion and the bottom of the slope of a hill are not reflected by the main horizontal lines. The drawn semi-horizontal reflects the protrusion, and the quarter-horizontal reflects the bottom of the slope.

Rice. 28. Representation of the main forms of relief with horizontal lines

The main horizontal lines are drawn with thin solid lines in brown ink, semi-horizontal - broken lines, quarter horizontal - short dash-dotted line (Fig. 27). For greater clarity and convenience of counting, some horizontal lines are thickened. With a section height of 0.5 and 1 m, thicken each horizontal line that is a multiple of 5 m (5, 10, 115, 120 m, etc.), when cross-sectioning the relief through 2.5 m - horizontal lines that are multiples of 10 m (10, 20 , 100 m, etc.), with a section of 5 m, thicken the horizontal lines, multiples of 25 m.

To determine the height of the relief in the gaps of thickened and some other contours, their marks are signed. In this case, the bases of the numbers of the horizontal marks are placed in the direction of lowering the slope.

Declassified topographic maps of the USSR General Staff are freely floating around the Internet. We all love to download them, look at them, and often print them on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased maps printed in modern times will not carry as much accuracy and specificity. The symbols and symbols on the topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other symbols on maps purchased in the store. We all remember them from geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, I would like to describe at the beginning of this article the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less understandable, since they are almost all identical to other types of cards (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

Speed ​​and direction of river flow (0.6 m/s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Soil type ( TO - rocky, P - sand, T - solid, IN - viscous)
Water line mark, shore height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky soil, 1,0 - speed (m/sec)
The swamp is passable
The swamp is impassable
Bridge characteristics: D- construction material ( D - wood, TO - stone, reinforced concrete - reinforced concrete), 43 - length of the bridge, 4 - width of the roadway (m), 10 - load capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
Winter road, a functioning road only in the winter season, during the cold period. Can go through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the roadway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring made of logs, 3 - width of the roadway
Go away
Railway track
Gas pipeline
Power lines (PTL)
Dismantled railway
Single track railway, narrow gauge. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 —width of the covered part, 8 — the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - crushed stone, Shl - slag, SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep river banks, rocky outcrops, Parma
Relief contours with relative height designation (260 m)
Mountainous terrain without vegetation cover, covered with kurum stones and rock outcrops
Mountainous area with vegetation cover and sparse trees, the forest border is visible
Outlier rocks with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and rocky cliffs
Elevation mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. Near the edge of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photos of some geographical objects

The main winter road laid through the taiga forest. In summer there are thickets here (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdel district, Northern Urals)

Gat - road with wooden covering (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, Parma (Stone "Giant", Middle Urals)

Remnant rocks (Old Stone rock, Middle Urals)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can date back to the 70-80s of the last century. If you are interested in the details of passing along certain trails, roads, the presence of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check in advance the reliability of information from other sources. There may no longer be any paths or roads at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and look like wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still provide more accurate information, and using them you can more productively calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not bother your heads with unnecessary symbols and symbols of topographic maps. I have posted only the most important and significant for the mountain-taiga and steppe region. Those interested in details can take a look.

Maps of the USSR General Staff were made using the Soviet system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in the Russian Federation and in some former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by geodetic reconnaissance of the pre-war period. “The maps are compiled in a conformal transverse cylindrical Gauss-Kruger projection, calculated using the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for a six-degree zone,” - and if you don’t understand, it doesn’t matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) the points that I cited above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using GPS.

Conventional signs There are contour, linear and non-scale.

• Contour(area) signs lakes are shown, for example;
• Linear signs - rivers, roads, canals.
• Off-scale signs on the plans, for example, wells and springs are noted, and on geographical maps— populated areas, volcanoes, waterfalls.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols

Rice. Basic symbols

Rice. Conventional signs of the area

Isolines

There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e., lines connecting points with the same values ​​of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isohypses or horizontals.

Rice. 2. Examples of isolines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways .By way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, for example animals, plants, and some minerals. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, and traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on political map, A quantitative background - division of a territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - traffic signs; c - method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs

To show the average magnitude of a phenomenon in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get the interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest indicator by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 is -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When showing these intervals on a map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts less intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and dense shading depict greater intensity. This method of cartographic representation is called cartogram(Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and map diagrams

To the method map diagrams are used to show the total magnitude of a phenomenon in any territory, for example, electricity production, the number of school students, fresh water reserves, the degree of arable land, etc. Map diagram called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief depiction on plans and maps

On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.

Horizontals, as you already know, these are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth's surface that have same height above ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).

Rice. 5. Image of the relief with horizontal lines

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how vertically one point on the earth’s surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of relative height

The relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau- level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod, is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Conduct hill leveling - this means taking measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top using a level and driving in pegs in the places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After this, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the area plan and a smooth line connects first all points that have a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Leveling a hill

Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if it is gentle, they will be far from each other.

Small lines drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berg strokes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.

Horizontal lines on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berg strokes are turned inward (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Depiction of various relief forms by horizontal lines

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines are indicated on maps by small teeth.

The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is located above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow - by 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of the points.

On physical map The relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are painted green. At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.