How topographic plans and maps are made. Image of local items on. What does a topographic plan look like?
Routing lesson
Teacher: Martynova Inna Vladimirovna Municipal Educational Institution Terengul Secondary School
Item: geography, 6th grade,
UMK: author's program A.A. Letyagin, I.V. Dushina, V.B. Pyatunin and others.
Textbook: Geography. Beginner course. 6th grade. A.A. Letyagin; edited by V.P. Dronova. M: Ventana-Graf, 2010.
Workbook No. 1 for the textbook by A. A. Letyain “Geography. Beginning course."
Toolkit. Geography. Beginner course. 6th grade: Approximate lesson planning. A.A. Letyagin. M: Ventana-Graf, 2008
Lesson topic: How to make topographic plans and maps
Place lesson in the topic: 6th lesson in the topic “Terrain plan”
Lesson type : combined
Lesson objectives:
Educational: contribute to the formationskills in working with topographic plan, map, scale; read topographic plan using conventional signs; ability to draw up simple terrain plans.
Educational: create conditions for the development of cognitive activity, intellectual and creative abilities of students; promote the development of skills to highlight, describe, explain the essential features of the main concepts of the topic; promote the development of skills in independent work with the text of a textbook, atlas, and multimedia presentation materials.
Educational: contribute to the education of geographical culture, the development of communication skills; develop interest in the subject being studied.
Planned results:
Personal: formationability to independently acquire new knowledge and practical skills using a terrain plan, fformation of moral behavior and moral consciousness.
Metasubject: formation and development through geographical knowledgecognitive interests, intellectual and creative abilities,Ability to independently search and select information.
Subject: read a topographic plan using symbols.Use the concepts of conducting visual surveys of the area to draw up a site plan. Use acquired knowledge and skills to navigate the terrain and conduct surveys of its areas.
Universal learning activities (UAL):
Personal: realize the need to study the topic.
Regulatory: plan your activities under the guidance of the teacher, evaluate the work of classmates, work in accordance with the assigned task.
Cognitive: extract, select and analyze information, obtain new knowledge, process information to obtain the desired result.
Communicative: be able to communicate and interact with each other, work in pairs, groups, and with teams.
Forms of student work: individual, in pairs, group, frontal.
Teacher Equipment: laptop, multimedia projector, presentation.
MoldedUUD
1. Updating students’ knowledge
Fill in the blanks in the text: “A topographic plan is calleddetailed flat largelarge-scale image of a small area of terrain in which, usingconventional signs show geographical features and themlocation on earth's surface»
Give answers
(2 minutes.)
Cognitive:
Regulatory:
Reasoned evaluation of answers
Communication: Express your opinion
2. Goal setting
Determination by students of the lesson topic, goals and objectives
Creating a problematic situation. Imagine that we were asked to draw a road from school to home, what do we need to know for this?
Let's determine the topic of the lesson
The purpose of our lesson?
Tasks?
Formulate the topic of the lesson “Howmake topographic plans and maps"
Formulate the purpose of the lesson: To learnmake topographic plans and maps.
They put forward the objectives of the lesson by analogy with the previous lesson.
Find solutions - use different sources of geographic information.
(3 min)
Regulatory:
Goal setting, planning
Cognitive:
Independent identification of a cognitive goal, selection of optimal ways to solve problems
Communication:
The ability to listen and engage in dialogue, participation in a collective discussion of a problem, the ability to express one’s thoughts
Personal:
Formation of personal worldview
3. Checking homework
Read the story (slide)
Read the plan and write down the text on pieces of paper. We exchange papers and check each other’s notes.
(7 min)
Cognitive:
Present information in different forms Regulatory: Work according to plan
Communication: Collaboration with peers.
Communication: Organize work.
4. Discovery of new knowledge
Organization of independent work of students
5 . Consolidation of knowledge and methods of action.
Sets educational objectives for students: To study types of terrain surveys
1 row Instrumental survey of the area
2 row Eye survey polar
3 row Plan of the area along the route
Physical education minute
So that my head doesn't hurt,We rotate it left and right.And now we roll our shoulders -And there will be a warm-up for them.Turns left and right.Step in place. We walk in formation.At least it's nice to warm up,It's time for us to get busy again. (1 min)
Working with a topographic plan.
Students in the group are given a plan of the area with a designated route. Exercise. Write a travel story about this area.
Instrumental survey of the area - use tools and equipment.
1. Polar terrain survey - a method of depicting a surface area from one point, within the visibility of objects.
2. The survey pole is selected in the middle of the site so that all objects of the surveyed territory are visible from it.
1. Route survey of the area - a method of depicting a surface area from one point to another.
2. Objects on both sides of the observer within visibility are plotted on the terrain plan
3. During route photography, objects are indicated by conventional topographic signs.
(8 min)
Students make up a story, then one of the students reads out what they came up with.
Group members conduct self-assessment (give marks to all group members)
(15 minutes)
Complete the task in the workbook (if there is time left)
Cognitive:
Find (in textbooks and other sources) reliable information
Present information in a form verbal response
Regulatory: Work according to the plan, checking the goal
Communication: Collaboration with teacher and peers.
Ability to listen and engage in dialogue.
Communication: Organize work in pairs or groups
6.Reflection
Summarizing
Flower of knowledge
I understood the lesson material, I was interested(red)
I didn't quite understand the lesson(yellow)
I didn't understand anything, I was bored(blue)
(1 min)
7. Homework
Everyone:
Paragraph 10, answer questions 2-4 p. 61 (orally), bring colored pencils.
Optionally:
Complete the task on p. 62
The second language of geography is cartographic representation. Even ancient sailors used maps. When planning the expedition, the researchers collected all available cartographic materials for the required area. Upon completion, the results were transferred to paper. This is how the area plan was created. This was the basis for creating new maps. What is a terrain plan and what are its fundamental differences from a geographical map?
terrain?
The very first maps in human history were plans. Now they are used in almost all branches of science and technology: construction cannot be done without them, agriculture, engineering surveys, etc.
A terrain plan is a large-scale image of a section of the earth's surface, the creation of which uses conventional signs. As a rule, these cartographic images are compiled for small areas with areas of up to several square kilometers. In this case, curvature does not affect the image in any way.
How is a plan different from a map?
Often in life we come across both a map and a plan of the area. Geography as a science relies on these cartographic images. But it's not the same thing.
When creating a geographic map, a smaller scale is used (that is, a larger area is covered), the nature of the earth's surface is taken into account, that is, the mathematical law of image construction is used - projection. The most important element geographical maps- degree grid: it is necessary to determine the cardinal directions. Parallels and meridians are often shown as arcs rather than straight lines. Only significant large objects can be plotted on the map. To compile them, a variety of materials are used, including larger-scale maps and satellite images.
A site plan is a more detailed image of a small area. It is built without taking into account the projection, since due to the size of the site, the surface is usually considered flat. The cardinal directions are determined by the directions of the plan frames. Absolutely all terrain elements are subject to display. They are compiled based on materials from large-scale aerial photography or on the ground.
How is the plan made?
To begin with, a point is selected on the site from which the entire area to be mapped is clearly visible. After this, you need to choose the scale of the future plan. Next step- determination of the direction to the north. This can be done using a tablet board and a hand compass. On paper you need to mark the point from which the area will be surveyed, and then draw all the main landmarks (corners of buildings, large trees, pillars).
Then, using special high-precision instruments, azimuths are measured to each point that needs to be reflected on the plan. Each time, azimuths are laid off from the main point, and an auxiliary line is drawn from it, and an angle is marked on the plan. The distance from the main point to the desired points in the area is also measured and transferred to paper.
Then in conventional signs site objects are displayed and the necessary signatures are made.
Throughout the entire area of the cartographic image of the plan, its scale remains unchanged. There are three types of scale:
- Numerical.
- Named.
- Linear.
Numerical is expressed as a fraction, the numerator of which is 1, and the denominator is M. This number M shows the degree of reduction in the size of the image on the plan. Topographic plans have scales of 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:5000. For land management work, smaller plan scales are also used - 1:10,000, 1:25,000, 1:50,000. The smaller scale is the one with the larger M number, and vice versa.
It's easier with a named scale - here the length of the lines is expressed verbally. For example, 1 cm is 50 meters. This means that 1 cm of distance on the plan corresponds to 50 m on the ground.
Linear scale - a graph depicted as a straight line segment, which is divided into equal parts. Each such part is signed with a numerical value commensurate with the length of the area.
Conventional signs of the area plan
In order to display any objects or processes on a topographic plan, to indicate their important qualitative or quantitative values, it is necessary to use conventional signs or designations. They give a complete picture of the spatial arrangement of objects, as well as their characteristics and appearance.
There are four types of symbols:
- Large-scale - linear and areal (for example, state squares, roads, bridges).
- Non-scale (well, spring, pillar, tower, etc.).
- Explanatory (signatures of the characteristics of objects, for example, the width of the highway, names of subjects).
They are all reflected in the legend of the plan. Based on the legend, a primary idea of the site is formed.
So, a terrain plan is an image of a small area of the earth's surface on a large scale. It is used in almost all spheres of human activity. Without it, it would be impossible to create topographic maps.
TRAINING AND METHODOLOGICAL CENTER
METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
To conduct classes on initial training of rescuers
(topography)
TOPIC No. 2 “Topographic maps, terrain diagrams and plans”
Chelyabinsk
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Study with students the scales of topographic maps,
give basic concepts of map orientation and topography
graphic symbols used on the map.
M E S T O: Cool.
TIME: 2 hours.
M E T O D: Practical lesson.
STUDY QUESTIONS AND TIME RECORDING
Introductory part - 5 min
Study question 1: Drawing up a plan and diagrams.- 45 min
2nd educational question: Orientation on the map. - 30 min
Conclusion: - 10 min.
L I T E R A T U R A:
1. Textbook “Military topography” for cadets of educational units.
2. Officer's Handbook on Military Topography.
HOW TO DO:
Check the availability of listeners,
Announce the topic, purpose, educational questions.
INTRODUCTORY PART:
Rescuers' actions take place on the ground or are closely related to it. The knowledge, teachings and skills acquired during the study of topography are of great practical importance in the activities of rescuers.
Knowledge of ways to study terrain, skills in orientation and movement on it in various conditions, day, night, with limited visibility, contribute to the correct use of favorable terrain properties to achieve success, help to quickly and confidently navigate and maintain a given direction when moving and maneuvering. The ability to use a topographic map makes it possible to study and evaluate the terrain in advance, and prepare the necessary data for the march.
Using the map, it is easier to make the most appropriate decision and assign tasks to subordinates.
1st educational question: Classification of topographic maps, local maps
sti and plans. Conventional signs.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP - a basic graphic document of an area containing an accurate, detailed and visual representation local items and relief. On topographic maps, local objects are depicted by generally accepted symbols, and the relief is depicted by contour lines.
Topographic maps are intended for the work of rescuers in preparing, organizing and conducting work. Using them, they study and evaluate the terrain, solve various calculation problems related to determining distances, angles and areas, heights, elevations and mutual visibility of terrain points, steepness and types of slopes, etc. They are planning a march and preparing
data for movement in azimuths.
The completeness, detail and accuracy of the depiction of the area on the map depend primarily on its scale.
Map scale shows how many times the length of a line on a map is less than its corresponding length on the ground. It is expressed as a ratio of two numbers. For example, a scale of 1:50,000 means that all terrain lines are depicted on the map with a reduction of 50,000 times, i.e. 1 cm on the map corresponds to 50,000 cm (or 50 m) on the ground.
The scale is indicated under the bottom side of the map frame in digital terms (numerical scale) and in the form of a straight line (linear scale), on the segments of which the corresponding distances on the ground are labeled. The scale value is also indicated here - the distance in meters (or kilometers) on the ground, corresponding to one centimeter on the map. It is useful to remember the rule: if you cross out the last two zeros on the right side of the ratio, then the remaining number will show how many meters on the ground correspond to 1 cm on the map, i.e. scale value.
When comparing several scales, the larger one will be the one with the smaller number on the right side of the ratio. Let us assume that for the same area of terrain there are maps of scales 1:25,000, 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. Of these, the scale of 1:25,000 will be the largest, and the scale of 1:100,000 will be the smallest.
A scale range has been established for topographic maps.
TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS.
Topographic plans can be created for large settlements and other important objects. They are a type of topographic maps and differ from them in that they are published in separate sheets, the dimensions of which are determined by the boundaries of the depicted area of the area (settlement, object). The plans have some design features.
Most often, plans are drawn up at scales of 1:10,000 - 1:25,000, which make it possible to show in great detail the nature of the depicted object and provide detailed information about the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of local objects and relief details located both on the object itself and on the nearest approaches to him. According to the depicted area (object) of the area, the name of the plan is signed, for example, Plan of Zavodskaya Station, Plan of Camps, etc.
For ease of use and greater clarity, city plans highlight prominent buildings with special symbols and colors, and city transport lines (metro, tram) are shown. To facilitate the purpose of the indication, the plan provides a conventional numbering of blocks and some local items, and a brief legend, a list of prominent buildings and an alphabetical street index are placed in the margins or on the back of the plan. A sample part of the city plan is given in Appendix 4.
Area diagram – a drawing on which the most characteristic local objects, as well as individual relief elements, are depicted with approximate accuracy.
Local objects are depicted on the diagram by topographical symbols, hills and depressions (heights, basins) are represented by several closed horizontal lines, and ridges and hollows are represented by fragments of horizontal lines that outline the configuration of these relief forms. At the same time, in order to speed up the work, the symbols of some local objects are simplified.
Drawing up terrain maps using eye survey techniques. To carry out eye survey, you need to have a compass, a sight line, a pencil, an eraser and a blank sheet of paper mounted on a rigid base (a piece of cardboard, plywood, etc.) In some cases, when the survey needs to be carried out quickly and does not require special care , it can be done with only a pencil and paper.
Let's consider some eye survey techniques used in drawing up terrain diagrams.
Shooting from one standing point used when the drawing requires showing a small area of terrain located directly around the standing point or in a given sector. In this case, shooting is performed using the circular sighting method in the following sequence.
A standing point is placed on a sheet of paper so that the area to be removed fits on this sheet. For example, if we are standing in the center of the area being photographed, then the standing point should be marked in the center of the sheet of paper, if
If we stand in one of the corners or on the edge of the area, then a dot on the paper should be placed in the corresponding corner or on the edge of the sheet of paper. Then, having oriented the sheet of paper relative to the area being filmed, they fix it on some object (stump, bridge railing, trench parapet) and, without disturbing the position of the sheet, carry out the survey.
If you have to work while holding a sheet of paper in your hand, then first draw a north-south direction on it. To do this, orienting a sheet of paper relative to the area being photographed, place a compass on it, release the needle brake and, when the needle calms down, draw a line parallel to the compass needle.
In the future, make sure that the direction of the compass needle exactly coincides with the drawn north-south line. When it is necessary to orient the drawing again, for example after a break in work, a compass is placed on it so that the divisions are 0 degrees (O) and 180 degrees. (S) coincide with the drawn north-south direction, then turn the drawing until the northern end of the compass needle is opposite the 0 degree division (N). In this position, the drawing will be oriented and you can continue working on it.
In order to put this or that object on the drawing, after orienting the sheet, you need to attach a ruler (pencil) to the standing point indicated on it and turn it around the point until the direction of the ruler coincides with the direction of the object. With this position of the ruler, draw a straight line along it from the standing point, this line will be the direction in which the object being drawn on the diagram is located. So they sequentially point the ruler at all other objects and draw directions for each of them.
Then the distances to the objects are determined and they are laid out in the appropriate directions from the standing point on the scale of the drawing or approximately, maintaining the approximate ratio of these distances in the drawing and on
Localities. The points obtained in the directions will indicate the location of objects in the drawing. In the places of the points, conventional signs of the applied objects are drawn, in relation to which the remaining details of the terrain, located directly near the point of standing, as well as those located between the applied landmarks or near them, are visually applied. Individual trees, bushes near the road, a section of an improved dirt road, ruins, holes, etc. are marked in this way on the terrain map.
Shooting from multiple vantage points performed when it is necessary to show a relatively large area of terrain.
In this case, local objects are marked on the drawing with serifs, by measuring distances, along the alignment, by the method of circular sighting, by the method of perpendiculars.
When preparing for shooting, it is necessary to secure the sheet of paper on which the shooting will be carried out on a solid base (tablet). A compass is attached to the same base so that the north-south line on the compass scale is approximately parallel to one of the sides of the tablet or sheet of paper.
For the speed and convenience of plotting distances measured in steps, it is necessary to make a step scale. This scale is built on a separate strip of paper or on the margin of the sheet on which the shooting is being carried out.
The scale of steps is built like this. Let's assume that the shooting is carried out on a scale
1:10,000, i.e. 1 cm in the drawing corresponds to 100 m on the ground. The value of one pair of steps of the surveyor is 1.5 m. Therefore, 100 pairs of steps are equal to 150 m on the ground or 1.5 cm on the drawing. A 1.5 cm piece is laid on a straight line three, four or more times. The number 0 is written against the second division on the left, and the numbers 100, 200, 300, etc. are written against subsequent divisions. Against the leftmost (first) division sign: 100 pairs of steps. In this way we obtain a scale of steps, each major division of which
Corresponds to 100 pairs of steps. In order for distances to be plotted with great accuracy, the leftmost segment is divided into 10 small divisions of 1.5 mm, each of which will be equal to 10 pairs of steps.
Having such a scale, there is no need to convert pairs of steps into meters each time; it is enough to plot the number of pairs of steps taken on a scale to get the distance on the shooting scale, which is plotted on the drawing.
The shooting is carried out by walking around the site along roads, the banks of a river, the edge of a forest, along a communication line, etc. The directions along which the survey is carried out are called running lines, and the points at which the directions of new running lines are determined and drawn are called stations.
IMAGE OF LOCAL OBJECTS ON
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Types of symbols of topographic maps. Local objects on topographic maps are depicted by conventional symbols.
For ease of reading and memorization, many symbols have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols for factories, oil rigs, free-standing trees, and bridges are similar in shape to appearance listed local items.
Conventional signs depicting the same terrain elements on topographic maps of different scales are identical in their outline and differ only in size.
The relief on topographic maps is depicted by contour lines, and some of its details (cliffs, ravines, gullies, etc..) - by corresponding symbols.
Conventional signs are usually divided into three main groups: large-scale, non-scale and explanatory.
Large-scale Conventional signs depict those local objects and relief details that can be expressed in size on the map scale (lakes, forests, neighborhoods settlements, large rivers, ravines, etc.).
The contours (external boundaries) of such objects (objects) are shown on the map as solid lines or dotted lines in exact accordance with their actual outlines. Solid lines show the contours of lakes, wide rivers, ravines, residential areas, dotted lines show the contours of forests, meadows, swamps. The area inside the outline of such symbols on the map is usually covered with paint of the appropriate color or filled with additional
Signs (Tables 1, 4, and 5 of Appendix 3).
Scale symbols allow you to determine from the map the actual length, width and area of depicted or objects. For example, if the width of a river on a 1:50,000 scale map is 2 mm, then its actual width on the ground is 100 m.
Off-scale Conventional signs are used to depict local objects and relief details that, due to the small size of the area they occupy, cannot be expressed on a map scale. Such local objects are mines, radio masts, wells, tower-type structures, mounds, etc.
The exact position on the map of an object depicted by a non-scale symbol is determined by the geometric center of the figure, the middle of the base of the sign, the vertex of the right angle at the base of the sign, and the geometric center of the lower figure.
An intermediate position between scale and non-scale symbols is occupied by symbols of roads, streams, gullies, water pipelines, power lines and other linear local objects, for which only the length is expressed on a scale. Such conventional signs are usually called linear. Their exact position on the map is determined by the longitudinal axis of the object.
Explanatory Conventional signs are used in combination with scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local objects and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional sign of a forest shows the dominant tree species in it (see figure), an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse strokes on a symbol railway show the number of paths.
The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations (Appendix 5).
Presentation on the topic: Topographic maps and plans. Scale. Conventional signs. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans
1 of 22
Presentation on the topic: Topographic maps and plans. Scale. Conventional signs. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans
Slide no. 1
Slide description:
Laboratory work No. 1 Topic: Topographic maps and plans. Scale. Conventional signs. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans Purpose: To become familiar with topographic maps and plans, scales, types of symbols. Master the measurement and construction of segments using graphic scales Work plan: Topographic plan and topographic map Conventional signs Scales, scale accuracy Linear measurements on topographic plans and maps Construction of segments of a given length using a transverse scale Measuring the length of broken and curved segments Homework (Individual calculation and graphic work)
Slide no. 2
Slide description:
1. Topographic plan and topographic map A topographic plan is a reduced and similar image on paper in conventional symbols of horizontal projections of the contours of objects and the relief of a small area of the terrain without taking into account the sphericity of the Earth. According to the content, plans are of two types: contour (situational) - they depict only local objects; topographical - local objects and relief are depicted.
Slide no. 3
Slide description:
Slide no. 4
Slide description:
1. Topographic plan and topographic map A topographic map is a reduced generalized image in symbols on paper of horizontal projections of the contours of artificial and natural objects and the relief of a significant area of the Earth, taking into account its sphericity. According to the content of the map, there are the following types: general geographical - they show the earth’s surface in all its diversity; special ones for various purposes (soil map, peat deposit map, vegetation map, etc.), on which individual elements are depicted with particular completeness - soils, peat deposits, vegetation, etc. Maps are conventionally divided by scale into three types: small-scale (smaller than 1:1,000,000); medium-scale (1:1,000,000 - 1:200,000); large-scale (scale from 1:100,000 to 1:10,000); Plan scales - larger than 1:10,000 .
Slide no. 5
Slide description:
2. Conventional signs Conventional signs that are used for designation on plans and maps various items areas are the same for all of Russia and, based on the nature of the image, are divided into 2 groups. Scale (area) symbols are used to depict objects that occupy a significant area and are expressed on the scale of a map or plan. An area symbol consists of a sign of the boundary of an object and icons or symbols that fill it. In this case, terrain objects are depicted in accordance with the scale, which makes it possible to determine from a plan or map not only the location of the object, but also its size and shape. Non-scale symbols are those conventional signs by which terrain objects are depicted without observing the scale of the map or plan, which only indicates the nature and position of the object in space along its center (wells, geodetic signs, springs, pillars, etc.). These signs do not allow one to judge the size of the local objects depicted. For example, on a large-scale map the city of Tomsk is represented as an outline (to scale); on the map of Russia in the form of a point (not to scale).
Slide no. 6
Slide description:
2. Conventional signs According to the method of depiction on the map, conventional signs are divided into 3 subgroups: A. Graphic symbols - lines of various configurations (solid, dotted, dash-dotted...), as well as combinations of them in the form geometric shapes. Graphic symbols are used to depict linear objects: roads, rivers, pipelines, power lines, etc., the width of which is less than the accuracy of the scale of this map.B. Color conventions: color washing along the contour of an object; lines and objects of different colors.B. Explanatory symbols – supplement other symbols with digital data and explanatory inscriptions; are placed at various objects to characterize their property or quality, for example: the width of the bridge, the type of tree, the average height and thickness of trees in the forest, the width of the carriageway and the total width of the road, etc. On topographic maps, symbols are indicated in a strictly defined sequence: Explanations of symbols signs are always shown on the right and only on educational maps.
Slide no. 7
Slide description:
Slide no. 8
Slide description:
3. Scales, accuracy of scale Horizontal projections of segments when drawing up maps and plans are depicted on paper in a reduced form, i.e. to scale. The scale of the map (plan) is the ratio of the length of the line on the map (plan) to the length of the horizontal projection of the terrain line:. (1) Scales can be numerical or graphic. Numerical 1) In the form of a simple fraction: , (2) where m is the degree of reduction or the denominator of the numerical scale. 2) In the form of a named ratio, for example: 1 cm 20 m, 1 cm 10 m Using scales, you can solve the following problems.1. Using the length of a segment on a plan of a given scale, determine the length of the line on the ground. 2. Using the length of the horizontal projection of the line, determine the length of the corresponding segment on the scale plan.
Slide no. 9
Slide description:
3. Scales, scale accuracy In order to avoid calculations and speed up work, as well as increase the accuracy of measurements on maps and plans, graphic scales are used: linear (Fig. 1.2) and transverse (Fig.). Linear scale is a graphic representation of a numerical scale in the form straight line.To build linear scale A series of segments of equal length are laid on a straight line. The original segment is called the base of the scale (O.M.). The scale base is the conventionally accepted length of segments plotted along a linear scale from zero on the right side of the linear scale and one division on the left side, which in turn is divided into ten equal parts. (M = 1:10000). The linear scale allows you to estimate a segment with an accuracy of 0.1 fraction of a base accurately and up to 0.01 fraction of a base by eye (for a given scale).
Slide no. 10
Slide description:
3. Scales, scale accuracy For more accurate measurements, use a transverse scale, which has an additional vertical construction on a linear scale. Transverse scaleAfter laying down the required number of scale bases (usually 2 cm long, and then the scale is called normal), perpendiculars to the original line are restored and divided into equal segments (m parts). If the base is divided into n equal parts and the division points of the upper and lower base are connected by inclined lines as shown in the figure, then a segment. The transverse scale allows you to estimate the segment exactly 0.01 fractions of the base, and up to 0.001 fractions of the base - by eye.
Slide no. 11
Slide description:
3. Scales, scale accuracy The transverse scale is engraved on metal rulers, which are called scale rulers. Before using the scale ruler, you should evaluate the base and its shares according to the following diagram. Example: Let the numerical scale be 1:5000, the named ratio will be: 1 cm 50 m. If the transverse scale is normal (base 2 cm), then: one whole base of scale (o.m.) - 100 m; 0.1 base of scale – 10 m; 0.01 scale base – 1 m; 0.001 scale base – 0.1 m.
Slide no. 12
Slide description:
3. Scales, scale accuracy Accuracy of scale makes it possible to determine which terrain objects can be depicted on the plan and which cannot because of their small size. The opposite question is also being resolved: on what scale should a plan be drawn up so that objects having, for example, dimensions of 5 m are depicted on the plan. In order to be able to accept in a particular case definite decision, the concept of scale accuracy is introduced. In this case, they proceed from the physiological capabilities of the human eye. It is accepted that it is impossible to measure the distance using a compass and a scale ruler more accurately than 0.1 mm on this scale (this is the diameter of a circle from a sharpened needle). Therefore, the maximum scale accuracy is understood as the length of a segment on the ground corresponding to 0.1 mm on a plan of a given scale. In practice, it is accepted that the length of a segment on a plan or map can be estimated with an accuracy of ± 0.2 mm. The horizontal distance on the ground, corresponding at a given scale to 0.2 mm on the plan, is called the graphic scale accuracy. Therefore, at this scale (1:2000), the smallest differences that can be identified graphically are 0.4 m. The accuracy of the transverse scale is the same as the accuracy of the graphical scale.
Slide no. 13
Slide description:
4. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans Segments, the length of which is determined from a map or plan, can be rectilinear or curvilinear. It is possible to determine the linear dimensions of an object on a map or plan using: 1. rulers and numerical scales; Measuring a segment with a ruler, we get, for example, 98 mm, or on a scale of –980 m. When assessing the accuracy of linear measurements, it should be taken into account that with a ruler you can measure a segment with a length of at least 0.5 mm - this is the magnitude of the error in linear measurements using a ruler 2. measuring compass and linear scale;3. measuring compass and transverse scale.
Slide no. 14
Slide description:
4. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans with a measuring compass and linear scale; Measuring segments using a linear scale is carried out in the following order: take the segment that needs to be measured into the measuring compass solution; attach the compass solution to the base of the linear scale, while aligning its right leg with one of the base strokes so that the left leg fits on the base to the left of zero (on a fractional basis); count the number of whole and tenths of the base of the scale:
Slide no. 15
Slide description:
4. Linear measurements on topographic maps and compass and transverse scale plans digitize the transverse scale (normal) at the map scale (in this case 1:10000):Fig. 1.4. Measuring a segment using a transverse scale We record it in the following form
Slide no. 16
Slide description:
5. Constructing segments of a given length using a transverse scale Let it be necessary to plot on a map of a scale of 1:5000 a segment whose length is 173.3 m. Make a painting in accordance with the map scale (1:5000): 2. Calculate the number of whole, tenths, hundredths and thousandths of bases of scale. Using a measuring compass, use a transverse scale to dial the calculated number of whole, tenths, hundredths and thousandths of bases of scale. Draw a segment on paper - pierce a sheet of paper and circle the resulting two points. The diameter of the circles is 2-3 mm.
Slide no. 17
Slide description:
6. Measuring the length of broken and curved segments Measuring broken segments is carried out in parts or by increasing the method (Fig. 7): install the legs of the meter at points a and b, lay the ruler along direction b-c, move the measuring leg from point a to point a1, add segment b-c, etc. Measuring curved segments is possible in several ways:. using a curvimeter (approximate); extension method; meter with a constant solution.
Slide no. 18
Slide description:
7. Solving problems The length of the line on the map (2.14 cm) and on the ground (4280.0 m) is known. Determine the numerical scale of the map. (2.48 cm; 620 m) Write a named scale corresponding to the numerical scale 1:500, 1:25000. (1:2000, 1:10000)On a plan M 1:5000, display an object whose length on the ground is 30 m. Determine the length of the object on the plan in mm. Determine the maximum and graphic accuracy of a scale of 1:1000; 1:5000.Using a measuring compass and a normal transverse scale, mark a segment of 74.4 m on a sheet of paper on a scale of 1:2000. (1415 m on a scale of 1:25000) Using a transverse scale, determine the distance between the absolute marks of points - 129.2 and 122.1 (square 67-12 educational card). (141.4 and 146.4 (square 67-12). Measure the length of the stream (to the Golubaya River) (square 64-11) using a curvimeter and a measuring compass with a solution of 1 mm. Compare the results. Horizontal distance between two points on the plan M 1:1000 is 2 cm. Determine the distance between these points on the ground.
22
Slide description:
List of references Guidelines for performing laboratory work in the discipline “Geodesy and Topography” for full-time students of the direction 130201 “Geophysical methods of search and exploration of mineral deposits” and 130202 “Geophysical methods of well exploration”. – Tomsk: ed. TPU, 2006 – 82 pp. Fundamentals of geodesy and topography: textbook / V.M. Perederin, N.V. Chukhareva, N.A. Antropova. – Tomsk: Tomsk Polytechnic University Publishing House, 2008. -123 p. Conventional signs for topographic plans at scales 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500/Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography under the Council of Ministers of the USSR. – M.: Nedra, 1989. -286 p.
Federal Agency for Railway Transport Ural State Transport University Department of Bridges and Transport Tunnels
B. G. Chernyavsky
SOLUTION OF GEODETIC AND ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
BY TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS AND PLANS
Guidelines on engineering geodesy for students of construction specialties
Ekaterinburg Publishing House UrGUPS
Chernyavsky, B. G.
Ch-49 Solving geodetic and engineering problems in topographic maps and plans: method. instructions / B. G. Chernyavsky. – Ekaterinburg: UrGUPS Publishing House, 2011. – 44 p.
The guidelines are intended for 1st year students of all forms of study in the field of study 270800 - “Construction”. Compiled in accordance with the curriculum and program for the discipline “Engineering Geodesy”, they can be used both in classroom lessons and during independent work students.
Examples of calculation and graphic design of work are given, the scope of the task is indicated, and test questions are given.
Reviewer: F.E. Reznitsky, associate professor, cand. tech. sciences
Educational edition
Editor S.I. Semukhina
Signed for publication on November 22, 2011. Format 60x84/16 Offset paper. Conditional oven l. 2.6.
Circulation 300 copies. Order No. 165.
Publishing house UrGUPS 620034, Ekaterinburg, st. Kolmogorova, 66
© Ural State Transport University (URGUPS), 2011
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
1. Scales of topographic maps and plans, measurement of line lengths on maps and plans. Symbols for topographic maps and plans ………………………………………………………………………………...5
2. Definition of geodetic and rectangular coordinates points,
angles of line orientation according to topographic maps and plans ………………………………………………………………………………11
3. Study of the terrain using a topographic map and plan. Drawing contour lines using a digital elevation model. Determination of point marks…………………………………………….19
4. Solving engineering problems using topographic maps
And plans………………………………………………………………................................... ..25
5. Geodetic preparation of the design of a building, structure for transferring it from the topographic plan to the terrain……….……32
6. Measuring the areas of the earth's surface using maps
And plans using a polar planimeter………………...….……...40
Bibliography………………………………………………………...44
Introduction
Topographic maps and plans are the basis for drawing up projects of various linear structures (railways and roads, power lines, heating mains, etc.), industrial and civil buildings, engineering structures (bridges, overpasses, tunnels), as well as for the land cadastre.
As a result of completing work on six topics, students should be able to solve geodetic and engineering problems using maps and plans, carry out geodetic preparation of a project, including drawing up a layout drawing to carry out work to determine the design of a building or structure on the ground, as well as determine the areas of the earth's surface.
1. Scales of topographic maps and plans. Measuring line lengths on maps and plans.
Symbols for topographic maps and plans
1. Familiarize yourself with topographic maps and plans, their scales and symbols.
2. Using a measuring compass and a linear scale, measure the lengths of the lines on a 1:10,000 scale map.
3. Paste the given transverse scale graph with a base of 2 cm into your notebook and digitize it for a scale of 1: 2000. Place several lines of a given length on the graph.
4. Draw a transverse scale graph with a base of 5 cm for a 1:2000 scale plan. Place several lines of a given length on the graph.
5. Draw a table of symbols.
6. Prepare a report on the work performed.
1.1. General information about maps and plans, their scales
A map is a reduced-scale image on a plane of large areas of the earth's surface, taking into account the curvature of the Earth. The map is inherently distorted, since the ellipsoidal surface on which the earth's surface is projected cannot be turned into a plane without distortion. To reduce and take into account these distortions, map projections are used.
Maps at scales 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000 and 1:10,000 are called
tion of topographical. In Russia, topographic maps are drawn up in the Gaussian projection. On maps of certain scales, terrain elements are depicted with approximately the same accuracy and detail.
A plan is a reduced and similar image on a plane of small areas of terrain (up to 320 km2), within which the curvature of the Earth can be neglected. Topographic plans are created to scale
1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500.
Points on the earth's surface are projected onto a mathematical surface - an ellipsoid or a plane along the normals, i.e. orthogonally (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Projecting points of the earth's surface onto a plane:
D – slant distance; ν – angle of inclination of the line; d – horizontal layout; P – horizontal plane
The scale of a map or plan is the degree of reduction of horizontal projections - the layout of terrain lines (10 - 20) when depicting them on a plane or, in other words, the ratio of the depicted line (1′ -2′) on a map or plan to its horizontal layout on the ground:
where M is the denominator of the scale.
For example, a scale of 1: 2000 means: one centimeter of line length on the plan corresponds to 2000 centimeters on the ground horizontally. Writing a scale as a fraction with a numerator equal to one is called a numerical scale.
On topographic maps, for example at a scale of 1:10,000, there is also an entry in the form of a phrase: “1 centimeter is 100 meters” - a named scale.
On maps and plans, numerical and named scales are indicated under the southern side of the sheet. In addition, the map shows a linear scale in the form of a scale, the divisions of which are signed (digitized) in accordance with the numerical scale.
The scale accuracy of a plan or map is the horizontal distance on the ground, corresponding to 0.1 mm on the plan or map.
1.2. Guidelines for completing the work “Scales of topographic maps and plans. Measuring line lengths on maps and plans"
Graphic constructions on paper when creating plans or maps are carried out with an accuracy of 0.1 mm. To obtain such precision in plotting or measuring line lengths, graphs are used transverse scales, engraved on a special metal scale ruler or on the ruler of a surveying protractor.
To construct such a graph, a segment AB, called the base of the scale, is plotted several times on a straight line (Fig. 2). Usually the segment AB = 2 cm. Then, from this line upward, 10 more lines are drawn at the same distance, parallel to the base.
Rice. 2. Cross-scale plot
Perpendiculars are restored from the ends of the base segments. Then the lower and upper bases of the AB scale are divided into 10 equal parts and inclined lines are drawn through the division points as shown in Fig. 2.
Depending on the scale of the plan or map, a special digitization of the graph is performed (see Fig. 2, digitization for a scale of 1:2000), but in any case, “zero” is set at point B. The resulting plot is called a transverse scale graph.
The AC line is a linear scale used to measure lines on maps. The smallest division ef of the transverse scale graph is 0.01 base AB. A graph with a base AB = 2 cm is called normal, since the segment ef is equal to 0.2 mm (ef = 0.01 AB = 0.01 2 cm = 0.2 mm) and can be divided in half. Therefore, the accuracy of graphic constructions on paper is taken to be 0.1 mm.
The accuracy of measuring or plotting line lengths on maps and plans is determined by the formula:
t = 0.1 mm M, where M is the denominator of the scale of the map or plan.
To determine the horizontal location of a line on a plan (map), take this line into a compass-measuring solution and transfer it to the bottom line of the graph so that the right needle of the meter aligns with one of the perpendiculars, and the left one falls on the base of the scale AB. Moving the gauge upward so that the right needle remains perpendicular, note the position when the left needle touches the inclined line. In this case, both needles should be on the same horizontal line. The required length will be obtained by summing the whole bases of the scale, their tenths and hundredths, placed between the needles.
In Fig. 2 line length d mn, taken from a 1: 2000 scale plan, has a length
d mn = 80 m + 5 x 4 m + 7 x 0.4 m = 102.8 m.
Measurement accuracy 0.2 m.
A transverse scale graph with a base of 2 cm is plotted on a surveying protractor ruler and digitized for a scale of 1:500. On a special scale ruler there are four transverse scale graphs with a base of 1, 2, 4 and 5 cm. Using such a ruler, measuring or plotting the lengths of lines is carried out without calculations, since all divisions of the graphs are multiples of 0.1 m; 1m; 10 m; 100 m line length on the ground for all standard scales.
1.3. Guidelines for performing the work “Conventional signs for topographic plans.” General information
Objects of the situation and terrain are depicted on topographic plans by symbols, which are given in special tables of the book “Conventional signs for topographic scale plans
1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500.” – M. Nedra, 1989.
Conventional signs are divided into areal (contour), linear and non-scale.
Area (contour) symbols depict terrain objects that have contour dimensions, the area of which is expressed on the scale of a given plan. A symbol or explanatory inscription is placed inside the outline, revealing the contents of the object. The border (contour) of terrain objects can be a dotted line or a solid line.
Linear symbols are used to depict linear objects. On the plan scale, only the length is expressed for such objects. These are roads, power and communication lines, pipelines, etc.
Out-of-scale symbols depict terrain objects that are not expressed on the plan scale. This is how geodetic points, structures on railways and roads, power and communication line poles, wells, etc. are depicted. Non-scale symbols include explanatory symbols: inscriptions, numbers, signs of vegetation types. Most of the inscriptions on the plans are placed horizontally - parallel to the south side of the frame.
Paints are used to finish plans. Black color is used to show situation elements and captions. Pink and yellow (orange) colors are used to show hard surfaces (road surfaces, sidewalks, etc.). Areas occupied by forests and shrubs are colored green, hydrography is shown in blue, and relief is shown in brown.
Graphic work assignment
Having become familiar with the book “Symbols for topographic plans at scales 1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500” in the university reading room, students study and draw in pencil or, if desired, in color (ink, gel) on on an A4 sheet, the following symbols for plans at a scale of 1:2000, which will be used when performing graphic work on drawing up a topographic plan (signs 5.1; 12; 13.2; 16.1; 115.5; 136; 155; 174.1; 193.1; 310; 314.2; 330.1; 366.1; 367.2; 368; 395.1; 401; 417; 475). Conventional signs are drawn according to size. The dimensions themselves are also indicated in the drawing.
The sizes of letters and numbers in symbols are taken according to the table. 116-118 books (characters 493, 494, 495). The rules for drawing symbols are given in the explanations on p. 121 - 254.
To correctly place the signature of the work, students study a sample of plans according to the table. 87 book inserts. Height lowercase letters in the signature of this and all subsequent ones graphic works taken equal to 2 mm, capital letters and numbers - 3 mm.
1.4. The work report is:
– drawn cross-scale graph with a base of 5 cm for a scale of 1:2000;
– table of symbols;
– answers to security questions.
Control questions
1. What is the scale of a map and plan?
2. In what form is the scale shown on maps and plans?
3. What is called the accuracy of the scale of a map or plan?
4. How to determine the accuracy of measuring the lengths of lines on a map or plan?
5. What is the work sequence when measuring the length of a line on a map using measuring compass and linear scale?
6. How is a cross-scale graph constructed?
7. What is the sequence of work when measuring the length of a line on a map (plan) using a meter and a scale ruler?
8. What is the sequence of work when plotting the length of a line on paper using measuring compass and scale ruler?
9. What are the features of cross-scale graphs with a base of 2 cm and 5 cm?
10. Give examples of area, linear and non-scale symbols.
