Orientation on the map. Orientation on the map. Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon based on signs of local objects
Orientation on the map consists of orienting the map and finding a standing point. Orienting a map means positioning it so that all landmarks of the area are parallel to the same lines on the map. If the map is oriented, it is easy to compare the terrain with the map. To orient the map using a compass, the compass must be placed on the side frame of the map or on the meridian line and the map must be rotated so that the northern point of the dial coincides with the northern end of the meridian, and the southern point with the southern one. If part of the route passes by linear landmarks (road, canal, power line, river), the map can be oriented according to them. To do this, it must be rotated so that the axis of the linear landmark on the map coincides with its axis on the ground.
Determining a location or standing point requires careful orientation of the map. The main ways to determine standing points: by local objects, by measuring distances, by resection. When determining the standing point using local objects, you need to orient the map, check it with the terrain, identify landmarks, i.e. find on the terrain what is shown on the map. Having identified 1-2 landmarks on the ground, they determine the distance to them by eye and mark the point of their standing on the map. On the way, carefully checking the map with the terrain, you can constantly have an idea of the point or area of location.
When moving through a forest or plain without visible local landmarks, the location point or area is determined by measurement. It consists in the fact that, knowing the direction of movement or moving along linear landmarks, they measure the distance from an identified object on the ground and shown on the map. By plotting the measured distance to scale on the map, the standing point is obtained. The distance traveled is measured by the time of movement. To do this, you need to keep an eye on the clock and record the start of movement, travel time, stop time, time of passing individual landmarks, and then multiply the net movement time by speed. By plotting the found distance along the line of movement on the map, a location point is obtained.
You can determine the distance to a landmark or object by eye. With repeated training, the accuracy of distance measurement can be increased to ±10-15%. It is known that the visibility of different objects is not the same. For example, roof tiles can be seen 200 m away, window frames 500 m away, telegraph poles 1000 m away, etc.
A more accurate method of measuring travel distances is by counting steps. The count is carried out in pairs of steps under one foot, but for this you need to measure the length of the step along the road, path, in the forest, on the descent, ascent. On the road, it is best to determine the length of a pair of steps between kilometer posts by counting the number of pairs of steps between the posts.
Determination of the standing point by resection is carried out by a linear landmark and a local object or by 2-3 landmarks. In the first case, if the map is oriented along the terrain lines, and the tourist is on this line, then to find the standing point, you need to find a landmark on the map that is visible on the terrain. By attaching a sight line to its image on the map and sighting through it at a landmark on the ground, they draw a straight line towards themselves. Then the intersection of this straight line with the orientation line will be the standing point. If 2-3 landmarks are used to determine the standing point, then, having oriented the map, they sequentially sight and draw the direction from several landmarks. The point where the lines intersect will be the standing point.
Terrain orientation includes determining your location relative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects, landmarks, maintaining a given or selected direction of movement and understanding the location of landmarks, boundaries, and other objects on the terrain.
Orientation on the terrain using a map, compass, watch, celestial bodies and local objects, according to various signs.
In most cases, terrain orientation can be done:
1. According to the map.
2. Using a compass.
3. Using a watch.
4. By celestial bodies.
5. On local subjects.
6. According to various criteria.
Orientation on the terrain using a map.
Using the map, you can determine your location, choose a path of movement, taking into account camouflage and overcoming possible obstacles, and also measure azimuths in advance for driving off-road and in conditions of limited visibility. To navigate the terrain using a map, you must first orient the map and determine your point of standing. The following methods are used to orient the map.
Orientation of the map along terrain lines.
In this case, you need to go out onto the road, clearing, river bank or other line. Find it on the map and then rotate the map until the direction of the road (line) on the map coincides with the direction of the road (line) on the ground. Then check that objects located to the right and left of the road (line) on the ground are on the same sides as on the map.
Orienting the map using a compass.
It is used primarily in terrain that is difficult to navigate (in the forest, in the desert, in the tundra), as well as in poor visibility. Under these conditions, the direction to the north is determined with a compass, and then the map is turned (directed) with the upper side of the frame towards the north so that the vertical line of the map coordinate grid coincides with the longitudinal axis of the magnetic needle of the compass.
The map can be oriented using a compass more accurately, taking into account the declination of the magnetic needle. To do this, you need to additionally rotate it so that the northern end of the magnetic needle deviates from the 0 degree line of the compass scale by the direction correction amount indicated in the lower left corner of this map sheet. It should be remembered that the compass cannot be used near iron objects, military equipment and power lines, as they cause a deviation of the magnetic needle.
Determining the point of your standing on the ground from the map.
It is easier to determine your standing point on the map when you are on the ground next to a landmark or local object) shown on the map. In this case, the location of the symbol will coincide with the standing point. If there are no such landmarks at the point on the ground, then it can be determined in one of the following ways.
To do this, you need to orient the map and identify 1-2 local objects on it and, accordingly, on the terrain, visually determine your location on the terrain relative to these objects, and also visually mark your standing point on the map.
Orientation on the terrain and determination of the standing point by measuring distances.
Moving along the road, along a clearing in the forest or another line in the area indicated on the map, measure in pairs of steps or using the speedometer of the car the distance traveled from the nearest landmark. To determine the point of your standing, you just need to plot the measured, traveled, distance on a scale on the map in the desired direction.
Orientation on the terrain and determination of the standing point using notches along a lateral landmark.
When driving along a road, along a clearing, along a telegraph line, your location can be determined by local objects or landmarks located on the sides of the road. To do this, you need to orient the map in the direction of the road and identify any landmark on it and on the ground.
Then apply a ruler or pencil to the selected landmark on the map and, without confusing the orientation of the map, rotate the ruler around the symbol of the landmark until its direction coincides with the direction of the landmark. The place where the ruler crosses the road will be the standing point.
When off-road, when the standing point is not marked on the map, it can be determined by resecting in two or three directions. To do this, you need to select 2-3 landmarks on the map and on the ground. Then orient the map according to the compass and, similarly to the previous method, provision and draw directions to each of the selected landmarks along the ruler. The intersection of the drawn lines will be the standing point.
Such orientation consists in determining the sides of the horizon, directions to the north, east, south, west, and one’s location on the ground relative to designated or selected landmarks and is usually used in a limited area. When determining the sides of the horizon using a compass, it is given a horizontal position, and the needle brake is released. After the oscillations stop, its luminous end will indicate the direction to the north.
To determine the sides of the horizon by the Sun and the clock, you need to stand facing the Sun. Place the clock showing local time so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun. A line dividing the angle between the clock hand and the direction of number “1” in winter time or “2” in summer time (only for CIS territories) in half will show the direction to the south. According to the North Star, which is always in the north, the sides of the horizon are determined as shown in the figure above.
Orientation based on the moon and the clock.
They use the moon and the clock to navigate when the starry sky is difficult to see. During a full moon, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the Moon using a watch in the same way as by the Sun. If the Moon is incomplete, waxing or waning, then you need to:
1. Divide the radius of the Moon’s disk into six equal parts by eye, determine how many such parts are contained in the diameter of the visible crescent of the Moon, and note the time on the clock.
2. From this time, subtract, if the Moon is waxing, or add, if the Moon is waning, as many parts as are contained in the diameter of the visible crescent of the Moon. In order not to make a mistake when to take the difference and when to take the sum, you can use the method shown in the figure below. The resulting sum or difference will show the hour when the Sun will be in the direction where the Moon is located.
3. Point at the Moon at the place on the watch dial that corresponds to the result obtained after adding or subtracting the time. The bisector of the angle between the direction to the Moon and one hour (winter time) or two hours (summer time) will show the direction south.
Orientation on the terrain and determination of the sides of the horizon by local objects.
Determining the sides of the horizon using local objects very inaccurate, and sometimes it’s completely wrong. Therefore, it must be produced only in combination with other methods. Orientation in local objects is based on knowledge of the following signs.
— The bark of most trees is rougher and darker on the north side, thinner and more elastic, and lighter on the south.
— In pine, the secondary, brown, cracked bark on the north side of the trunk rises higher than on the south.
— On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side.
— Annual rings on fresh tree stumps are denser on the north side.
— On the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tile and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi.
— Anthills are located on the southern side of trees, stumps and bushes; in addition, the southern slope of anthills is usually flat, and the northern slope is steep.
— Berries and fruits turn red (yellow) earlier on the south side.
— In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch.
— Individual trees have crowns that are lush and dense on the south side.
— Snow melts faster on southern slopes; as a result of thawing, notches (spikes) are formed on the snow, directed to the south.
— The altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and the main entrances are located on the west side.
— The raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north.
Based on materials from the book “Textbook of a Military Intelligence Sergeant.”
1989
We have already said that no description of the area can give the reader the correct idea of it that a topographic map gives. It is the map that serves as a ground guide when driving on and off roads, day and night in unfamiliar terrain. Knowledge of it and the ability to use it is necessary for everyone, but especially for travelers, tourists, prospectors, geologists, surveyors, and military personnel. You need to be able to compare it with the terrain, but most importantly, be able to navigate the terrain using a map.
Let us remind you once again that orientation on a map (aerial photograph) consists of orienting the map, determining your location point on it (standing point) and comparing the map with the terrain.
What is map orientation? Orienting a map means giving it a position in the horizontal plane such that all directions on it are parallel to the corresponding directions on the ground, and the upper (northern) side of its frame faces north. Orientation Maps are made mainly based on terrain lines and landmarks. And only where they are absent or not visible, the map is oriented using a compass.
Orientation of the map according to terrain lines and landmarks is carried out as follows. If you are in an area where there is a straight section of road, it is recommended that you orient the map along the road. To do this, the map is rotated so that the image of the road on it coincides with the direction of the road on the ground, and the image of all other local objects located to the right and left of the road are on the same sides on the map. Figure 51 shows two options for orienting the map along the road (a) and towards
landmark (b). The advantage of this method of orienting the map along the road is that it provides fast and accurate orientation and does not require corrections. It is the main way to navigate when driving cars and other equipment. In closed (wooded) areas, as well as in areas where there are few or no linear landmarks, this method is not acceptable. In this case, the map is oriented in directions to the landmark.
If your location on the map is known (for example, a road intersection, bridge, mound, etc.), then the map is oriented towards any visible landmark indicated on the map. To do this, apply a ruler (or pencil) to two points on the map ( dot our position - the crossroads in Figure 51, b and the windmill - a landmark) and, looking along the ruler, turn with the map so that the selected landmark is on the line of sight.
If this is not possible on the ground, then a compass is used to orient the map. There are three ways to orient the map using a compass.
First way. If the magnetic declination for a given map sheet is less than 3°, it is oriented by compass without taking into account the magnetic declination. In this case, the map is given a horizontal position. Place a compass on it in the direction N - S along the meridian (western or eastern frame of the map) so that the letter “C” is in the north of the map, and release the brake on the magnetic needle. Carefully rotating the map together with the compass, we bring the letter “C” on the compass dial to the end of the magnetic needle - the map is oriented.
Second way. If the magnetic declination for a given map sheet is more than 3°, then the map is oriented using a compass, taking into account the magnetic declination. In this case, everyone does the same as in the first method. But then, by rotating the map, they bring under the northern end of the magnetic needle that division on the compass dial that corresponds to the magnitude and sign of the magnetic declination indicated in the border design of the map. Figure 52, a shows the first step on how to correctly install a compass on a map when it is not yet oriented. Then the second position of the map is shown (Fig. 52, b), when it is rotated so that the northern end of the compass needle coincides with the letter “C” (north) on the dial. In this case, the map is oriented, but without taking into account the magnetic declination. In Figure 52, c, the third and last action was performed, that is, the map was rotated so that the northern end of the compass needle coincided with the number H-15° on the compass dial, that is, the corresponding eastern magnetic declination, and if it were the western magnetic declination , then the map would have to be rotated as shown in Figure 52, d.
Third way. Often when working on the ground, the map is folded so that the sides of its frame are wrapped inside it. In this case, to orient the map, instead of the side of its frame, you can use the vertical lines of the kilometer grid, on one of which a compass is installed according to the same rules as on the side of the frame. In this case, for accurate orientation of the map, install it so that the northern end of the compass needle shows the number on the compass dial corresponding to the value and sign of the correction (P).
The next element of terrain orientation using a map is determining your location. Various methods can be used here as well.
On local subjects. The easiest way to do this is when you are next to some landmark shown on the map (a crossroads, a separate stone, a characteristic ledge of a forest, etc.). The location of the symbol on the map will indicate the desired point of our location.
Based on the nearest landmarks by eye. This is the simplest and main way to approximately determine your location on a map. In this case, the map must be oriented and identified on it and on
one or two landmarks in the area. Then they determine by eye their location relative to these landmarks on the ground and plot their location on the map. For example, having stopped in an open area (Fig. 53), you noticed that a tree is visible in the direction of your movement, and to the left at a right angle is a turning pole of the communication line. Having oriented the map, you found on it the image of a tree and the angle of rotation of the communication line. Then, having determined by eye that the tree is located at a distance of approximately 400 m from you, and the angle of rotation of the communication line is at a distance of 200 m, we will plot these distances on the map so that there is approximately a straight line between them. You will find your location on the map.
Measuring the distance traveled. This method is used when moving along a road, path, clearing or along any other terrain line indicated on the map (river bank, forest edge, communication line, etc.), as well as when moving in a straight line in any specific direction ( for example, to a distant landmark, and in poor visibility conditions - in the direction of a given azimuth). It is especially useful in conditions of poor visibility and in areas that are obscured or poor in landmarks. Having started moving from any object identified on the ground and on the map (bridge, crossroads, edge of the forest, etc.), you count pairs of steps. In this case, your location point can always be determined by plotting on the map scale the distance you have traveled from the starting point in a given direction of movement.
Example. Having walked along the road (Fig. 54) 200 m from the bridge in the direction of the trigonometric point, the tourist stopped. Setting aside the distance traveled from the bridge, he received his location on the map.
Serif according to landmarks. This method is most suitable for open areas and in conditions of good visibility. When moving along a road or along any linear landmark, marking your location point is carried out as follows (Fig. 55).
We orient the map and identify on it reference point, visible on the ground from a given point. Then we place a ruler (or pencil) on the map to the image of this landmark and, without disrupting the orientation of the map, rotate it around the symbol. The point of intersection of the line of sight along the ruler with the image of the road on which we are located will be the desired point of our location on the map. Determining our location point is simplified if the selected landmark is perpendicular to the direction of movement or in alignment with some other landmark, also marked on the map and visible from this point (Fig. 56). Then the desired point of our location on the map is determined by the intersection of the road on which we are with a straight line drawn through a landmark perpendicular to the line of our movement. In the second case - with a straight line passing through both landmarks forming the target. When drawing these lines, you do not even need to orient the map or sight the landmarks using a ruler.
When driving off roads and in directions not indicated on the map, your location is determined by resecting at least two landmarks. To do this, find on the ground in different directions, at an angle of at least 30° from each other and no more than 150°, two local objects that are on the map. The map is oriented according to the compass, and then one by one sights at each landmark and draws directions from the landmarks towards oneself along a ruler. The intersection of these directions on the map will be our location point (Fig. 57).
The third element of orientation on the map is comparing it with the terrain. To compare a map with the terrain means to find on it an image of local objects and relief elements located around the point of our location and, conversely, to identify the objects shown on the map on the ground. You have to constantly compare the map with the terrain when orienting it and working with it on the ground. This allows you to quickly and completely study the terrain, identify changes that have occurred in it, clarify the location of observed targets, landmarks and other important objects, determine the distance to them, etc.
In order to find on a map an image of an object observed on the ground, you need to:
Orient the map and determine your location on it;
While maintaining the orientation of the map, turn to face the object whose position you need to find on the map;
Mentally draw a line from your location point to an object visible on the ground, estimate the distance to it by eye and plot it on the map scale from your location point in the direction of the object
At a set distance, find an image of the identified object on the map.
Example. In Figure 58, from our location, a height is visible behind the forest. On the map behind the forest in this direction, behind the forest symbol, several heights are shown. Having oriented the map and applying a ruler to the point of our location, we sight at the height visible on the ground. By drawing a line along the ruler, we determine what height is visible behind the forest.
To solve the inverse problem, that is, to recognize the object shown on the map on the ground, we also need to orient the map and find our location on it. Then we determine by eye the distance to the desired object using the map and direction on him and using this data we find him on the ground.
These are the basic elements of navigating the terrain using a map and compass. A few words about navigating on the map while on the move (by car, motorcycle).
Orientation using a map in motion comes down to finding landmarks shown on the map along the route of movement. Orientation in a car has its own characteristics. Firstly, it cannot be used inside or near the machine. compass; secondly, the speed of movement creates inconvenience in comparing the map with the terrain; and finally, visibility of the area from the car is limited.
In order to confidently move along the intended path and accurately reach the final destination, you need to prepare a map before the march and determine the data for the movement. Usually, the route of movement is drawn on the map with a dotted line. Then the terrain along the route is mapped and landmarks are selected against which the correct direction of movement will be checked. When choosing them, preference is given to individual details of the relief, as well as local objects that are poorly susceptible to change. Landmarks are selected both on the route itself and on the sides of the route at a distance at which you can clearly see them while driving. Landmarks are marked at all turns of the route and on long straight sections. If terrain semi-closed and traffic will take place on dirt roads, then the distance between landmarks should not exceed 1-3 km. After this, the distance to the landmarks from the starting point is determined by an accrual total (that is, such and such a landmark at such and such a kilometer, etc.) and is converted into readings from the car’s speedometer (a device that shows the number of kilometers traveled by the car). It is recommended to label these distances on the map. Prepared in this way, the map, for ease of use while on the move, is folded “accordion-style” along the route (that is, folded along the length of the route several times and easily opened at any section of the route you need). While moving, the map must always be held in front of you in an oriented position, that is, rotated along the axis of movement. If movement is carried out off the road, then the map is oriented according to distant landmarks.
Work on the route to maintain the route comes down to finding landmarks on the ground, indicated on the map, and to sequential movement from one landmark to another. Having a speedometer on your car makes it possible to take into account the distance traveled, which makes it much easier to find designated landmarks on the ground.
So, we have examined the basic issues of orientation on the ground with and without a map, with and without a compass, and now we can begin to study methods of movement on the ground, and the main one is movement in azimuths.
When performing many combat missions, commanders' actions are inevitably related to terrain orientation. The ability to navigate is necessary, for example, on the march, in battle, in reconnaissance to maintain the direction of movement, target designation, drawing landmarks, targets and other objects on a map (terrain diagram), control of a unit and fire. Knowledge and skills in orienteering consolidated by experience help to more confidently and successfully perform combat missions in various combat conditions and on unfamiliar terrain.
Find your bearings- this means determining your location and directions to the sides of the horizon relative to surrounding local objects and relief forms, finding the indicated direction of movement and accurately maintaining it along the way. When orienting in a combat situation, the location of the unit relative to friendly and enemy troops, the location of landmarks, and the direction and depth of operations are also determined.
The essence of orientation. Terrain orientation can be general or detailed.
General orientation consists in approximate determination of one’s location, direction of movement and the time required to reach the final destination of movement. This type of orientation is most often used on the march, when the crew of the vehicle does not have a map, but uses only a pre-compiled diagram or list of settlements and other landmarks along the route. To maintain the direction of movement in this case, it is necessary to constantly monitor the time of movement, the distance traveled, determined by the speedometer of the car, and control the passage of settlements and other landmarks according to the diagram (list).
Detailed orientation is to accurately determine your location and direction of movement. It is used when orienting using a map, aerial photographs, land navigation instruments, when moving in azimuth, plotting explored objects and targets on a map or diagram, when determining achieved boundaries, and in other cases.
When navigating the terrain, the simplest elements are widely used. ways of orientation: using a compass, celestial bodies and signs of local objects, as well as a more complex method - orientation on a map.
2. Orientation on the terrain without a map: determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies and signs of local objects
To find the direction according to the cardinal points, first determine the north-south direction; after which, facing north, the determiner will have to the right - east, to the left - west. The cardinal directions are usually found using a compass, and in the absence of one, using the Sun, Moon, stars and some signs of local objects.
2.1 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon using celestial bodies
In the absence of a compass or in areas of magnetic anomalies, where the compass can give erroneous readings (readings), the sides of the horizon can be determined by the celestial bodies: during the day - by the Sun, and at night - by the North Star or the Moon.
According to the Sun
In the northern hemisphere, the sunrise and sunset locations by season are as follows:
- in winter the Sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest;
- in summer the Sun rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest;
- In spring and autumn, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
The sun is approximately at 7.00 in the east, at 13.00 in the south, at 19.00 in the west. The position of the Sun at these hours will indicate the directions east, south and west, respectively.
The shortest shadow from local objects occurs at 13 o'clock, and the direction of the shadow from vertically located local objects at this time will point to the north.
To more accurately determine the sides of the horizon based on the Sun, wristwatches are used.
Rice. 1. Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun and the clock. a – up to 13 hours; b – after 13 hours.
Rice. 2. Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star
By the Moon
For approximate orientation (see Table 1), you need to know that in the summer in the first quarter the Moon is in the south at 19 a.s., at 1 a.m. - in the west, in the last quarter at 1 a.m. - in the east, at 7 a.m. - in the south.
During a full moon at night, the sides of the horizon are determined in the same way as by the Sun and the clock, and the Moon is taken for the Sun (Fig. 3).
According to the Sun and the clock
In a horizontal position, the clock is set so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun. The angle between the hour hand and the direction towards number 1 on the watch dial is divided in half by a straight line, which indicates the direction to the south. Before noon, it is necessary to divide in half the arc (angle) that the arrow must pass before 13.00 (Fig. 1, a), and after noon - the arc that it passed after 13.00 (Fig. 1, b).
By the North Star
The North Star is always in the north. To find the North Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which resembles a bucket made up of seven fairly bright stars. Then, through the two rightmost stars of the Ursa Major, mentally draw a line on which to plot the distance between these extreme stars five times, and then at the end of this line we will find the Polar Star, which, in turn, is located in the tail of another constellation called Ursa Minor. Facing the North Star, we will get the direction to the north (Fig. 2).
Rice. 3. Determining the sides of the horizon by the moon and the clock.
Table 1
| Cardinal directions | First quarter (visible, right half of the Moon's disk) | Full Moon (the entire disk of the Moon is visible) | Last quarter (the left half of the Moon's disk is visible) |
|
In the east |
- | 19 hours |
01 o'clock (night) |
| 19 hours | 01 o'clock (night) | 07 o'clock (am) | |
| In the West | 01 o'clock (night) | 07 o'clock (am) |
2.2 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon based on signs of local objects
If there is no compass and the heavenly bodies are not visible, then the sides of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local objects.
By melting snow
It is known that the southern side of objects heats up more than the northern side, and accordingly, the melting of snow on this side occurs faster. This is clearly visible in early spring and during thaws in winter on the slopes of ravines, holes near trees, and snow stuck to stones.
By the shadow
At noon, the direction of the shadow (it will be the shortest) points north. Without waiting for the shortest shadow, you can navigate in the following way. Stick a stick about 1 meter long into the ground. Mark the end of the shadow. Wait 10-15 minutes and repeat the procedure. Draw a line from the first shadow position to the second and extend one step beyond the second mark. Place the toe of your left foot opposite the first mark, and the toe of your right foot at the end of the line you drew. You are now facing north.
For local subjects
It is known that resin protrudes more on the southern half of the coniferous tree trunk; ants make their homes on the southern side of the tree or bush and make the southern slope of the anthill flatter than the northern one (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Determining the sides of the horizon
according to the characteristics of local objects. The bark of birch and pine on the northern side is darker than on the southern side, and tree trunks, stones, rock ledges are more densely covered with moss and lichens.
In large tracts of cultivated forest, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the clearings, which, as a rule, are cut strictly along the north-south and east-west lines, as well as by the inscriptions of block numbers on poles installed at the intersections of the clearings.
On each such pillar, in its upper part and on each of the four faces, numbers are affixed - the numbering of the opposite forest blocks; the edge between the two edges with the smallest numbers shows the direction to the north (the numbering of forest blocks in the CIS goes from west to east and further to the south).
By buildings
Buildings that are quite strictly oriented along the horizon include churches, mosques, and synagogues.
Altars and chapels of Christian and Lutheran churches face east, bell towers face west.
The lowered edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome of the Orthodox Church faces the south, the raised edge faces the north.
The altars of Catholic churches are located on the western side.
The doors of Jewish synagogues and Muslim mosques face approximately north, their opposite sides are directed: the mosques face Mecca in Arabia, lying on the Voronezh meridian, and the synagogues face Jerusalem in Palestine, lying on the Dnepropetrovsk meridian.
Temples, pagodas, and Buddhist monasteries face south.
The exit from the yurts is usually made to the south.
In rural houses, more windows in living areas are cut on the south side, and the paint on the walls of buildings on the south side fades more and has a faded color.
3. Determination of the sides of the horizon, magnetic azimuths, horizontal angles and compass direction
3.1 Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass
Using a compass, you can most conveniently and quickly determine north, south, west and east (Fig. 5). To do this, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the arrow from the clamp, and let it calm down. Then the arrow-shaped end of the arrow will point north.
Rice. 5 Determining the sides of the horizon using a compass.
To determine the accuracy of the deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of terrain points in relation to the direction to the north and counting them, divisions are marked on the compass, of which the lower divisions are indicated in degree measures (the value of the division is 3 °), and the upper divisions of the protractor in tens of thousands. Degrees are counted clockwise from 0 to 360°, and protractor divisions are counted counterclockwise from 0 to 600°. The zero division is located at the letter “C” (north), and there is also a triangle glowing in the dark, which replaces the letter “C” in some compasses.
Under the letters “B” (east), “Y” (south), “3” (west) there are luminous dots. On the movable cover of the compass there is a sighting device (sight and front sight), against which luminous indicators are mounted, which serve to indicate the direction of movement at night. The most common compass in the army is the Andrianov system and the artillery compass.
When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields or nearby metal objects will deflect the needle from its correct position. Therefore, when determining compass directions, it is necessary to move 40-50 m away from power lines, railroad tracks, military vehicles and other large metal objects.
Determining directions to the sides of the horizon using a compass is performed as follows. The sighting device's front sight is placed on the zero scale division, and the compass is placed in a horizontal position. Then the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned so that its northern end coincides with the zero reading. After this, without changing the position of the compass, a distant landmark is noticed by sighting through the rear sight and front sight, which is used to indicate the direction to the north.
Rice. 6. Relative position of the sides of the horizon> Directions to the sides of the horizon are interconnected (Fig. 6), and if at least one of them is known, the rest can be determined.
The opposite direction to north will be south, to the right is east, and to the left is west.
3.2 Determination of magnetic azimuth by compass
Magnetic direction azimuth determined using a compass (Fig. 7). At the same time, the brake of the magnetic needle is released and the compass is turned in a horizontal plane until the northern end of the needle is positioned against the zero division of the scale.
Then, without changing the position of the compass, install the sighting device so that the line of sight through the rear sight and front sight coincides with the direction of the object. The scale reading against the front sight corresponds to the value of the determined magnetic azimuth of the direction to the local object.
The direction azimuth from the standing point to a local object is called direct magnetic azimuth. In some cases, for example, to find a return path, they use reverse magnetic azimuth, which differs from the straight line by 180°. To determine the reverse azimuth, you need to add 180° to the forward azimuth if it is less than 180°, or subtract 180° if it is greater than 180°.
Rice. 7. Determination of the magnetic azimuth direction to a separate tree
3.3 Determination of horizontal angles using a compass
First, the front sight of the compass sighting device is set to zero on the scale. Then, by turning the compass in a horizontal plane, align the line of sight through the rear sight and front sight with the direction to the left object (landmark).
After this, without changing the position of the compass, the sighting device is moved to the direction of the right object and a reading is taken on the scale, which will correspond to the value of the measured angle in degrees.
When measuring an angle in thousandths The line of sight is first aligned with the direction towards the right object (landmark), since the count of thousandths increases counterclockwise.
4. Methods for determining distances on the ground and target designation
4.1. Methods for determining distances on the ground
Very often it is necessary to determine the distances to various objects on the ground. Distances are most accurately and quickly determined using special instruments (rangefinders) and rangefinder scales of binoculars, stereo scopes, and sights. But due to the lack of instruments, distances are often determined using improvised means and by eye.
Common methods for determining the range (distances) to objects on the ground include the following: by the angular dimensions of the object; by linear dimensions of objects; eye; by visibility (discernibility) of objects; by sound, etc.
Rice. 8. Determination of distances by the angular dimensions of an object (subject)
Determination of distances by angular dimensions objects (Fig. 8) is based on the relationship between angular and linear quantities. The angular dimensions of objects are measured in thousandths using binoculars, observation and aiming devices, a ruler, etc.
Some angular values (in thousandths of the distance) are given in Table 2.
table 2
The distance to objects in meters is determined by the formula: , where B is the height (width) of the object in meters; Y is the angular magnitude of the object in thousandths.
For example (see Fig. 8):
Determining distances by linear dimensions of objects is as follows (Fig. 9). Using a ruler located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, measure the height (width) of the observed object in millimeters. Then the actual height (width) of the object in centimeters is divided by that measured using a ruler in millimeters, the result is multiplied by a constant number 5 and the desired height of the object in meters is obtained: 
Rice. 9. Determination of distances by linear dimensions of an object (subject)
For example, a distance between telegraph poles equal to 50 m (Fig. 8) is closed on the ruler by a segment of 10 mm. Therefore, the distance to the telegraph line is: 
The accuracy of determining distances by angular and linear values is 5-10% of the length of the measured distance. To determine distances based on the angular and linear dimensions of objects, it is recommended to remember the values (width, height, length) of some of them, given in table. 3.
Table 3
| Item | Dimensions, m | ||
| Height | Length | Width | |
| Medium tank | 2-2,5 | 6-7 | 3-3 5 |
| Armored personnel carrier | 2 | 5-6 | 2-2,4 |
| Motorcycle with sidecar | 1 | 2 | 1,2 |
| Freight car | 2-2,5 | 5-6 | 2-3,5 |
| A car | 1,6 | 4 | 1,5 |
| Four-axle passenger car | 4 | 20 | 3 |
| Four-axle railway tank | 3 | 9 | 2,8 |
| Wooden communication line pole | 5-7 | - | - |
| Average height man | 1,7 | - | - |
Determining distances by eye
Eye-measuring- this is the easiest and fastest way. The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally lay down a well-imagined constant measure on the ground (50, 100, 200, 500 meters). Having fixed these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and estimate distances on the ground.
When measuring distance by successively mentally setting aside a well-studied constant measure, one must remember that the terrain and local objects seem reduced in accordance with their distance, that is, when removed by half, the object will seem half as large. Therefore, when measuring distances, the mentally plotted segments (measures of terrain) will decrease according to the distance.
The following must be taken into account:
- the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us;
- the closer an object is, the larger it appears;
- larger objects seem closer than small objects located at the same distance;
- an object of a brighter color appears closer than an object of a dark color;
- brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit ones that are at the same distance;
- during fog, rain, twilight, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, observed objects seem further away than on clear and sunny days;
- the sharper the difference in color of the object and the background against which it is visible, the more reduced the distances seem; for example, in winter a snow field seems to bring the darker objects on it closer;
- objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, distances defined across vast expanses of water seem especially shortened;
- folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not fully visible to the observer, conceal the distance;
- when observing while lying down, objects seem closer than when observing while standing;
- when observed from the bottom up - from the bottom of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further;
- when the sun is behind the soldier, the distance disappears; shines into the eyes - it seems larger than in reality;
- The fewer objects there are in the area under consideration (when observed through a body of water, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the smaller the distances seem.
The accuracy of the eye meter depends on the training of the soldier. For a distance of 1000 m, the usual error ranges from 10-20%.
Determination of distances by visibility (discernibility) of objects
With the naked eye, you can approximately determine the distance to targets (objects) by the degree of their visibility. A soldier with normal visual acuity can see and distinguish some objects from the following maximum distances indicated in Table 4.
It must be borne in mind that the table indicates the maximum distances from which certain objects begin to be visible. For example, if a serviceman saw a pipe on the roof of a house, this means that the house is no more than 3 km away, and not exactly 3 km. It is not recommended to use this table as a reference. Each serviceman must individually clarify this data for himself.
Table 4
| Objects and attributes | The distances from which they become visible (discernible) |
| Separate small house, hut | 5 km |
| Pipe on the roof | 3 km |
| Airplane on the ground tank in place | 1 2 km |
| Tree trunks, kilometer poles and communication line poles | 1.0 km |
| Movement of the legs and arms of a running or walking person | 700 m |
| Heavy machine gun, mortar, anti-tank gun, wire fence stakes | 500 m |
| Light machine gun, rifle, color and parts of clothing on a man, the oval of his face | 250 - 300 m |
| Roof tiles, tree leaves, wire on stakes | 200 m |
| Buttons and buckles, details of a soldier's weapons | 100 m |
| Human facial features, hands, details of small arms | 100 m |
Orientation by sounds.
At night and in fog, when observation is limited or impossible at all (and in very rough terrain and in the forest, both at night and during the day), hearing comes to the aid of vision.
Military personnel must learn to determine the nature of sounds (that is, what they mean), the distance to the sources of sounds and the direction from which they come. If different sounds are heard, the soldier must be able to distinguish them from one another. The development of such an ability is achieved through long-term training (in the same way a professional musician distinguishes the voices of instruments in an orchestra).
Almost all sounds that indicate danger are made by humans. Therefore, if a soldier hears even the faintest suspicious noise, he should freeze in place and listen. If the enemy starts moving first, thereby giving away his location, then he will be the first to be detected.
On a quiet summer night, even an ordinary human voice in an open space can be heard far away, sometimes half a kilometer. On a frosty autumn or winter night, all kinds of sounds and noises can be heard very far away. This applies to speech, steps, and the clinking of dishes or weapons. In foggy weather, sounds can also be heard far away, but their direction is difficult to determine. On the surface of calm water and in the forest, when there is no wind, sounds travel a very long distance. But the rain greatly muffles the sounds. The wind blowing towards the soldier brings sounds closer and away from him. It also carries sound away, creating a distorted picture of the location of its source. Mountains, forests, buildings, ravines, gorges and deep hollows change the direction of sound, creating an echo. They also generate echoes and water spaces, facilitating its spread over long distances.
The sound changes when its source moves on soft, wet or hard soil, along the street, along a country or field road, on pavement or soil covered with leaves. It must be taken into account that dry soil transmits sounds better than air. At night, sounds are transmitted especially well through the ground. That’s why they often listen by putting their ears to the ground or tree trunks. The average range of audibility of various sounds during the day on flat terrain, km (in summer), is given in Table 5.
Table 5
| Character of sound | Range audibility, m |
| The crack of a broken branch | Up to 80 |
| Steps of a man walking along the road | 40-100 |
| Strike the oars on the water | Up to 1000 |
| The blow of an ax, the ringing of a cross-saw | 300-400 |
| Digging trenches with shovels in hard ground | 500-1000 |
| Quiet conversation | 200-300 |
| Shout | 1000-1500 |
| The sound of metal parts of equipment | Up to 300 |
| Loading small arms | Up to 500 |
| Tank engine running on site | Up to 1000 |
| Movement of troops on foot: | |
| - on a dirt road | Up to 300 |
| - along the highway | Up to 600 |
| Vehicle movement: | |
| - on a dirt road | Up to 500 |
| - along the highway | Up to 1000 |
| Tank movement: | |
| - on a dirt road | Up to 1200 |
| - along the highway | 3000-4000 |
| Shot: | |
| - from a rifle | 2000-3000 |
| - from a gun | 5000 or more |
| Gun firing | Up to 15000 |
To listen to sounds while lying down, you need to lie on your stomach and listen while lying down, trying to determine the direction of the sounds. This is easier to do by turning one ear in the direction from which the suspicious noise is coming. To improve hearing, it is recommended to apply bent palms, a bowler hat, or a piece of pipe to the auricle.
To better listen to sounds, you can put your ear to a dry board placed on the ground, which acts as a sound collector, or to a dry log dug into the ground.
Determining distances using the speedometer. The distance traveled by a car is determined as the difference between the speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the journey. When driving on hard-surfaced roads it will be 3-5%, and on viscous soil 8-12% more than the actual distance. Such errors in determining distances using the speedometer arise from wheel slip (track slippage), tire tread wear and changes in tire pressure. If you need to determine the distance traveled by the car as accurately as possible, you need to make an amendment to the speedometer readings. This need arises, for example, when moving in azimuth or when orienting using navigation devices.
The amount of correction is determined before the march. For this purpose, a section of the road is selected, which in terms of the nature of the relief and soil cover is similar to the upcoming route. This section is passed at marching speed in the forward and reverse directions, taking speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the section. Based on the data obtained, the average length of the control section is determined and the value of the same section, determined from a map or on the ground with a tape (roulette), is subtracted from it. Dividing the result obtained by the length of the section measured on the map (on the ground) and multiplying by 100, the correction factor is obtained.
For example, if the average value of the control section is 4.2 km, and the measured value on the map is 3.8 km, then the correction factor is: 
Thus, if the length of the route measured on the map is 50 km, then the speedometer will read 55 km, i.e. 10% more. The difference of 5 km is the magnitude of the correction. In some cases it may be negative.
Measuring distances in steps. This method is usually used when moving in azimuth, drawing up terrain diagrams, drawing individual objects and landmarks on a map (scheme), and in other cases. Steps are usually counted in pairs. When measuring a long distance, it is more convenient to count steps in threes, alternately under the left and right foot. After every hundred pairs or triplets of steps, a mark is made in some way and the countdown begins again.
When converting the measured distance in steps into meters, the number of pairs or triplets of steps is multiplied by the length of one pair or triple of steps.
For example, there are 254 pairs of steps taken between turning points on the route. The length of one pair of steps is 1.6 m. Then:
Typically, the step of a person of average height is 0.7-0.8 m. The length of your step can be determined quite accurately using the formula:
Where D is the length of one step in meters; P is a person’s height in meters.
For example, if a person is 1.72 m tall, then his step length will be equal to:
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Determination of distances by geometric constructions on the ground. This method can be used to determine the width of difficult or impassable terrain and obstacles (rivers, lakes, flooded areas, etc.). Figure 10 shows the determination of the river width by constructing an isosceles triangle on the ground.
Since in such a triangle the legs are equal, the width of the river AB is equal to the length of the leg AC.
Point A is selected on the ground so that a local object (point B) on the opposite bank can be seen from it, and a distance equal to its width can be measured along the river bank.
Fig. 10. Determination of distances by geometric constructions on the ground. The position of point C is found by approximation, measuring the angle ACB with a compass until its value becomes equal to 45°.
Another version of this method is shown in Fig. 10, b.
Point C is selected so that the angle ACB is equal to 60°.
It is known that the tangent of an angle of 60° is equal to 1/2, therefore, the width of the river is equal to twice the distance AC.
In both the first and second cases, the angle at point A should be equal to 90°.
Orientation by light very convenient for maintaining direction or for determining the position of an object on the ground. Moving at night towards a light source is most reliable. The distances at which light sources can be detected by the naked eye at night are given in Table 6.
Table 6
4.2. Target designation
Target designation – this is the ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground. Target designation has important practical significance for controlling a unit and fire in battle. Target designation can be carried out either directly on the ground or from a map or aerial photograph.
When designating targets, the following basic requirements are observed: indicate the location of targets quickly, briefly, clearly and accurately; indicate goals in a strictly established order, using accepted units of measurement; the transmitter and the receiver must have common landmarks and firmly know their location, and have a uniform coding of the area.
Target designation on the ground is carried out from a landmark or in azimuth and range to the target, as well as by pointing the weapon at the target.
Target designation from a landmark- the most common way. First, the closest landmark to the target is named, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in thousandths, and the distance of the target from the landmark in meters. For example: “Landmark two, forty-five to the right, then a hundred, there is an observer at a separate tree.”
If the transmitting and receiving target have observation devices, then instead of the distance of the target from the landmark, the vertical angle between the landmark and the target in thousandths can be indicated. For example: “Landmark four, thirty to the left, ten below - a combat vehicle in a trench.”
In some cases, especially when issuing target designation for unobtrusive targets, local objects located near the target are used. For example: “Landmark two, thirty to the right - a separate tree, further two hundred - ruins, twenty to the left, under a bush - a machine gun.”
Target designation by azimuth and range to the target.
The azimuth of the direction to the appeared target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it in meters using binoculars (observation device) or by eye. Having received this data, they transmit it, for example: "Thirty-two, seven hundred - a fighting machine."
Target designation by pointing a weapon at a target
Targets spotted on the battlefield must be immediately reported to the commander and their location correctly indicated. The target is indicated by verbal report or tracer bullets.
The report should be concise, clear and precise, for example: “There’s a wide bush straight ahead, a machine gun on the left.” “The second landmark, two fingers to the right, under the bush there is an observer.” When designating targets with tracer bullets, fire one or two short bursts in the direction of the target.
Location orientation consists in determining the cardinal directions, one’s own position relative to the surrounding area and the direction of further movement. We can say that orientation allows you to track the accuracy of a previously laid route.
During a hike, especially if the path runs through unfamiliar terrain, it is important to be able to navigate in order to follow the laid out route and not get lost. The most popular among tourists and military personnel, quite deservedly, is orientation on the map. A map is generally a very useful thing on a hike, because with its help you can quickly find your bearings and identify deviations from the route. Of course, it is desirable in this case. However, if you don’t have it, you can do without it. Let's consider how to navigate the map correctly.
Map orientation can be general or detailed character.
General orientation consists in approximately determining your location, movement vector and time to cover the route. As a rule, it is used when the route has already been laid out in advance. To monitor compliance with the path, for example, in .
Detailed orientation- this is an accurate determination of your location and direction of movement on the map. Plays an important role when crossing places where deviation from a given route can be dangerous. For example, during mountain crossings or in a critical situation.
When orienting on the ground, it is important to be able to quickly and accurately determine the cardinal directions, measure distances to landmarks and direction angles on the map and on the ground, and draw up a movement pattern in azimuths.
Types of landmarks
Landmarks necessary to determine the location relative to them and adjust the route. They are objects or relief forms that are easily distinguishable by their shape or color. There are area, linear and point:
- Area landmarks. They are characterized mainly by the fact that they occupy a significant area. This includes settlements, reservoirs, swamps, forests, etc. They are easy to identify and remember even at the stage of preparing for a hike and drawing up a route.
- Linear landmarks. These are structures and relief forms that are distinguished by their length and relatively small width. This includes: roads, canals and rivers, pipelines, power lines (power lines), ravines, canyons, etc. Well suited for monitoring compliance with a given direction when moving.
- Point landmarks. They are distinguished by their small area, but are marked on maps: buildings, towers, intersections, mountain peaks and factory chimneys and other objects. Used to determine your own location. They allow you to accurately indicate the destination or a specific place, square.
Ways to orientate a map
Essentially, the process of navigating the terrain using a map consists of two stages. First - orientation of the map itself relative to the cardinal directions, the second - . Let's look at the first stage.
Any map, in addition to displaying the relief and legend, has cardinal directions. As a rule, north is placed at the top of the map, south at the bottom, respectively, west will be on the left and east on the right, but other variations are possible. Map orientation lies in its placement in such a way that the designations of the cardinal directions on it would coincide with the real directions. There are several ways to navigate.
Orienting the map using a compass
The easiest way, since you don’t need to look for any landmarks to use it. In this connection, it is carried out in a closed area, poor in landmarks. To orient the map, place it on one of its vertical lines. For example, to the lines of the kilometer grid, or to the frame, a compass so that the direction of the compass arrow coincides with the cardinal directions on the map. Usually in such cases the north end of the compass needle coincides with the top edge of the map. At the same time, there are some subtleties that depend on which part of the map you apply the compass to.
So, if the device was attached to a kilometer grid, after placing it, the map, as already mentioned, should be rotated in a horizontal plane so that the top of the map frame coincides with the north direction of the compass. In this case, the magnetic needle of the device will deviate from the north mark by the amount of the correction. The correction in this case will be the sum of the angle of convergence of the meridians and the angle of magnetic declination.
If the compass is placed relative to the map frame, or the true meridian, then the correction in this case will simply be magnetic declination angle.
In the case when the correction is positive, the compass needle is located to the right of the north mark, and if it is negative, then to the left.
Orienting the map along terrain lines
To do this, it is necessary that linear objects be within sight. For example, railways, power lines, etc. The map should be rotated so that the image of this linear object coincides with its real direction. All objects that are located to the left and right of this object must coincide with their images on the map.
Orienting the map by directions to a landmark
Used if you do not have a compass at hand and there are no linear objects nearby. For orientation, it is necessary that the place where the observer is located be determined on the map, and from this place some landmark, also displayed on the map, should be visible. This way, you can draw a mental segment and also mentally put it on the map. If your imagination fails, you can use a ruler.
Finding your location
Your location The easiest way to determine this is if you are at some noticeable landmark displayed on the map. For example, a bridge, structure, rock, etc. The place where this landmark is located will be the desired point on the map. If this is not possible, then you can estimate your location using nearby landmarks by eye. Or by measuring the distance traveled, by notching on a local object, or by back notching. There are other ways.
Serif on a local subject
Measuring distances
By nearby landmarks
Back serif
How to identify a landmark and compare it with a map?
Compare the area with the map- this means recognizing the surrounding terrain in the images represented by the map. Relief is of great importance when passing the route. This is especially true for hiking in dangerous terrain - swamps or mountains. Without seeing the dangerous area, you risk leaving the safe route and, for example, falling into the abyss. To identify an observed object on a map, it is necessary to at least approximately calculate the distance to it and the azimuth from the north or another known and specific direction. Then, draw this distance on the map, to scale, adjusted for the established deviation. After this, as a rule, the object is already identified visually.
If, on the contrary, you need to find an object on the ground indicated on the map, then you should perform the following sequence of actions:
- Orient the map;
- Determine your own location;
- Calculate the distance to the desired object from the map;
- Determine the directional angle and azimuth of the desired object and perform a visual search on the ground in the desired direction.
Note that when comparing a map with the terrain, you should not only identify the observed objects on it, but also study the features of the relief. Since its shape greatly influences the passage of the route, during the construction of which errors could have been made. As they say: “It was smooth on paper, but they forgot about the ravines - how to walk along them?” In this case, you will have to rebuild the route on the spot, using updated data. 
What to do if the direction is lost and there is no landmark?
It also happens that exact landmarks cannot be found, in which case there may be several location options. If you have lost your direction, then you need to return to the exact place where you were. Then you should pull yourself together and start moving in the right direction again, but at the same time check the map more often. This option is the simplest from a technical standpoint. Also, you can identify large objects, for example, rivers, ridges, forests, etc. and go in azimuth to any of the specified places. After this, you need to get your bearings, identify the deviation and the distance traveled in order to return to the route. It makes sense to climb onto a hill in order to better inspect everything and reconnoiter the situation.
Routes can run through places where there are no landmarks at all. In this case, it is important to be able to anticipate such segments and determine them in advance, even at the planning stage of the trip, so that you can overcome them without problems.
