Symbols of roads on topographic maps. Topographic designation of the well on the terrain plan. Classification of conventional signs

The designation of the well on the terrain plan and on topographic maps is of great importance, especially in desert and semi-desert areas. Like other hydrographic objects, they are marked in blue in the form of circles with the letter K next to it or the caption "art.k." (artesian well). All designations on maps and plans are called conventional cartographic signs... In order to make them easy to read and easy to remember, many signs have a visual similarity (side or top view) with the designated object.

Classification of conventional signs

On maps and plans, all elements of the terrain are indicated by conventional signs. They are usually divided into 3 independent groups:

• scale or contour;
• off-scale;
• explanatory.

In order to make the depicted signs look more visual, all elements of the same type are applied with the same paint, that is, any hydrographic element is indicated in blue.

Objects of the same type on maps with different scales are designated the same and differ only in size. The larger the scale of the map, the more objects can be plotted on it and information is indicated. Small structures of secondary importance, as a rule, are not applied to them, thereby increasing the clarity of the image.

This technique is called cartographic generalization. The filling of the map or plan with terrain elements depends on the characteristics of the territory. The more complex and rich in objects it is, the more elements will be applied to the plan and the more difficult it will be to read. An area that abounds in lakes, rivers and other water bodies is topographed without small objects, unless they are the main landmarks. For example, in such an area, wells are not essential, but in the steppe regions they must be drawn on the plan.

Along with elevation marks, they are good landmarks. In a desert area, the main source is indicated by a larger icon, and explanatory inscriptions are applied next to it. To the left of the legend, in black font, the ground level is indicated, and to the right - the depth of the source in meters and the filling rate in l / h.

When shooting a plan of the area in settlements, water pipelines, sewer and gas systems are necessarily indicated. At the locations of water supply and sewer wells, the diameters of the pipes, the direction of movement of the medium and the type of structure are indicated. In addition, the pressure in the pipelines is removed from the gas wells. In addition to these structures, gas distribution points with appropriate explanations must be indicated without fail.

In addition, on the ground, the distance of the underground pipeline from buildings and other objects is marked on special signs. This sign is applied to electrical supports, fence posts, etc., indicating the direction and distance to the pipe from a specific landmark.

Assigning plans and legends

The same icons are used to draw up the terrain plan as for topographic maps. Plans are made for a small area on a large scale. They are used by utilities and emergency services, tourist groups, agricultural workers. The purpose of the plans is the ability to orient and study areas of the terrain for work. They are a guide for teaching children to move in azimuth and the basics of topographic survey.

To instill skills in orientation in the terrain and conducting surveys, all objects should be marked with generally accepted signs. This will help you avoid misreading maps and confusion when hiking. The meaning of learning to move in azimuth is to instill in the child the ability to independently walk along a route in an unfamiliar area and determine his location using the available landmarks.

A towering well crane will be a good point from which to locate. There are other high landmarks, for example, factory chimneys, a freestanding tree, geodetic signs, etc. Having acquired the skills of reading a map or plan and comparing the designations of landmarks with objects on the ground, the child will be able to read topographic maps and plans of unfamiliar terrain without much difficulty.

The lexical meaning of a word is its content. It can be unambiguous and ambiguous. In this case, the word well is polysemantic, and can be used both literally and figuratively. Wells are capable of being sources of drinking water and at the same time designating building structures intended for inspecting and controlling the actuators of underground communications (electrical, plumbing, sewage, etc.). In a figurative sense, it is a courtyard formed by closely standing walls of multi-storey buildings. The entrance to them is from the street through the gateways.

Symbols there are contour, linear and off-scale.

• Contoured(areal) signs shown, for example, lakes;
• Linear signs - rivers, roads, canals.
• Out-of-scale signs on the plans they mark, for example, wells, springs, and on geographical maps- settlements, volcanoes, waterfalls.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols

Rice. The main conventional signs

Rice. Symbols of the area

Isolines

There is a separate category of conventional signs - isolines, that is, lines connecting points with the same values ​​of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights the earth's surface — isogypsum or horizontals.

Rice. 2. Examples of contour lines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways.By the way of habitats show areas where natural or social phenomena, such as animals, plants, and some minerals, are distributed. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on political map, a quantitative background - subdivision of the territory by any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - way of areas; b - traffic signs; в - the method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - point marks

To show the average magnitude of a phenomenon in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get an interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest values ​​by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 ... When these intervals are shown on the map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts less intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and thick shading - more. This method of cartographic representation is called cartogram(fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and cartodiagrams

To the way cartodiagrams are used to show the total magnitude of the phenomenon in any territory, for example, electricity production, the number of students in schools, fresh water supplies, the degree of plowing of the land, etc. Schematic map they call a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief image on plans and maps

On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.

Horizontals, as you already know, these are lines on a plan or map that connect points on the earth's surface that have the same height above ocean level (absolute altitude) or above reference level (relative altitude).

Rice. 5. The image of the relief by horizontals

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows the vertical distance one point of the earth's surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of the relative height

The relative height can be determined with a level. Level(from fr. niveau- level, level) - a device for determining the height difference between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod (tripod), is equipped with a telescope adapted to rotation in the horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Conduct leveling the hill - this means making measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top with the help of a level and driving in the pegs in those places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the foot of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After that, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the terrain plan and first all points with a relative height of 1 m are connected with a smooth line, then - 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Not lighting the hill

Pay attention: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if the slope is flat, they will be far from each other.

Small lines drawn perpendicular to the contours are bergstrokes. They show in which direction the slope is going down.

The horizontals on the plans depict not only heights, but also depressions. In this case, the bergstriches are turned to the inner side (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Image by contours of various forms of relief

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines on maps are denoted by small teeth.

The height of a point above the mean sea level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow is 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is 26 m below this level. The elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute heights of points.

On physical map the relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with a color of different intensity. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are shaded green. At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called scale of heights.

Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are freely roaming the Internet. We all love to download them, view, and often print on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

The topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and the best. Any other purchased cards printed in modern times will not carry as much accuracy and specificity. Symbols and designations on topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other designations for maps purchased in the store. We all remember them from our geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, at the beginning of this article I would like to describe the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less clear, since they are almost all identical with other types of maps (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

River speed and direction (0.6 m / s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Type of soil ( TO - stony, NS - sand, T - solid, V - viscous)
Water edge elevation, shore height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky ground, 1,0 - speed (m / s)
Swamp passable
Impenetrable swamp
Characteristics of bridges: D- building material ( D - wood, TO - stone, ZhB - reinforced concrete), 43 - the length of the bridge, 4 - width of the carriageway (m), 10 - carrying capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
A winter road, an operating road only in the winter season, in the cold season. Can walk through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the carriageway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring of logs, 3 - width of the carriageway
Gat
Railway bed
Gas pipeline
Power lines (TL)
Dismantled railway
Single track railway, narrow gauge railway. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 - width of the coated part, 8 - the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - chipped stone, Shl - slag, SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep river banks, rocky outcrops, parma
Contours of the relief with the designation of the relative height (260 m)
Mountainous area without vegetation, covered with stones-curums and outlier rocks
Mountainous terrain with vegetation and rare trees, the border of the forest is visible
Outlier rocks with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and rocky cliffs
Height mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. Near the border of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photos of some geographic objects

Main winter road, laid through the taiga forest. In summer, there are thickets (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdel district, North Ural)

Gat - a road with a wooden surface (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, Parma (Stone "Giant", Wed Ural)

Outlier rocks (Starik-stone rock, Wed Ural)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are outdated for a long time. The information contained on them can date back to 70-80 years of the last century. If you are interested in the details of the passage along certain paths, roads, the presence of settlements and geographic sites, you should check in advance the reliability of information from other sources. Trails and roads may no longer exist at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and represent wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still carry more accurate information, and using them you can more efficiently calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not bother to fill your heads with unnecessary symbols and conventional signs of topographic maps. I have posted only the most important and significant ones for the mountain-taiga and steppe regions. Anyone interested in the details can see.

The maps of the USSR General Staff were made using the Soviet system of plotting and the nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in the Russian Federation and in some of the former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80-ies of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by geodetic reconnaissance before the war. "Maps are drawn in the Gauss-Kruger conformal transverse-cylindrical projection, calculated from the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for a six-degree zone," - and if you do not understand, then it does not matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) the moments that I gave above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using gps.

Symbols of topographic maps provide complete information about the area. They are generally accepted and are used for topographic maps and plans. Topographic maps are important material not only for tourists, but also for geodetic organizations, for authorities that are engaged in planning the area and transferring the boundaries of sites.

Knowledge about conventional signs helps not only to read the map correctly, but also to draw up detailed plans of the area, taking into account the new objects that have appeared.

Topographic maps are a kind of geographic maps. They carry detailed information on the plan of the area, indicating the location of various technical and natural objects relative to each other.

Topographic maps vary in scale of execution. All of them carry less or more detailed information about the area.

The scale of the map is indicated on the side or bottom of the map. It shows the ratio of sizes: indicated on the map to natural. Thus, the larger the denominator, the less detailed the material. Let's say a map 1:10 000 will have 100 meters in 1 centimeter. To find out the distance in meters between objects, using a ruler, the segment between two points is measured and multiplied by the second indicator.

1. The most detailed is topographic plan terrain, its scale is 1: 5,000 inclusive. It does not count as a map and is not as accurate as it does not take into account the notion that the earth is round. This somewhat distorts its informativeness, nevertheless, the plan is indispensable when depicting cultural, household and economic objects. In addition, the plan can also show micro-objects that are difficult to find on the map (for example, vegetation and soils, the contours of which are too small to be depicted in other materials).
2. Topographic maps in scale 1:10 000 and 1:25 000 are considered the most detailed among the maps. They are used for household needs. They depict settlements, industrial facilities and objects. Agriculture, roads, hydrographic network, marshes, fences, boundaries, etc. Such maps are most often used to obtain information about features in an area that does not have significant forest cover. The objects of management are most reliably depicted in them.
3. Maps with a scale of 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 are less detailed. They schematically depict the outlines of forests and other large objects, the image of which does not require much detail. Such maps are useful for aeronautical navigation, road routes and so on.
4. Less detailed maps are used for military purposes to accomplish assigned planning tasks for various operations.
5. Maps with a scale of up to 1: 1,000,000 allow you to correctly assess the overall picture of the area.

Having decided on the task at hand, the choice of material seems to be absolutely not challenging task... Depending on how much detailed information about the area is needed, the required map scale is also selected.

Working with a topographic map requires a clear knowledge of the schematic designation of the depicted objects.

Types of conventional signs:

• areal (large-scale) - for large objects (forest, meadow, lake), their sizes can be easily measured on a map, correlated with a scale and get the necessary information about the depth, length, area;
• linear - for extended geographic objects, the width of which cannot be indicated, they are plotted as a line corresponding to the scale in order to correctly display the length of the object (road, power strip);
• off-scale - they are used to designate strategically important objects, without which the map will be incomplete, but in a rather arbitrary size (bridge, well, separate tree);
• explanatory - characterizing the object, for example, the depth of the river, the height of the slope, the tree, which denotes the type of forest;
• depicting landscape components: relief, rocks and stones, hydrographic objects, vegetation, artificial structures;
• special - are applied to maps for individual sectors of the economy (meteorological, military signs).

The designations of topographic maps in certain cases, especially for individual groups of objects, allow some conventions:

• basic information that the image carries settlement- the density of building and the location of the boundaries of the object, for this it is not necessary to mark each building, you can limit yourself to the main streets, intersections and important buildings;
• the legend of a group of homogeneous objects allows the image of only the extreme of them;
• when drawing a line of roads, it is necessary to indicate their middle, which should correspond to the situation on the ground, and the width of the message object itself should not be displayed;
• strategically important sites such as factories and factories are marked on the site where the main building or factory chimney is located.

Due to the correct application of signs on the map, you can get a detailed idea of ​​the relative position of objects on the ground, the distance between them, their heights, depths, etc. important information.

The map must be objective and this requirement includes the following provisions:

• correctly selected standard symbols, if this is a special map, then the symbols should also be generally known in a certain area;
• correct image of line elements;
• one map must be drawn in the same image style;
• micro-objects should also be indicated exactly, if there is a certain number of such objects of the same size on the ground, they should all be marked with the same sign on the map;
• the color indicators of the elements of relief forms must be maintained correctly - the heights and lowlands are often depicted in paints, there should be a scale next to the map that shows what height on the terrain a particular color corresponds to.

Symbols of topographic maps and plans are applied in accordance with uniform rules.

So:

1. The sizes of objects are displayed in millimeters. These signatures are usually placed to the left of conventional signs. For one object, two numbers are given for the height and width. If these parameters match, one signature is allowed. For round objects, their diameter is indicated, for signs in the shape of a star - the diameter of the circumscribed circle. For an equilateral triangle, the parameter of its height is given.
2. The thickness of the lines should correspond to the scale of the map. The main objects of plans and detailed maps (factories, mills, bridges, locks) are drawn with 0.2–0.25 mm lines, the same designations on small-scale maps from 1:50 000 - with 0.2 mm lines. Lines for secondary characters are 0.08–0.1 mm thick. On plans and large-scale maps it is allowed to increase the characters by one third.
3. The legend of topographic maps must be clear and legible, the spaces between the inscriptions must be at least 0.2–0.3 mm. Strategically important objects can be slightly increased in size.

Separate requirements are put forward for the color scheme.

So, the background color should provide good readability, and the conventional signs are indicated by the following colors:

• green - designations of glaciers, permanent snow, swamps, salt marshes, intersections of coordinate lines and hydrography;
• brown - relief forms;
• blue - water bodies;
• pink - interline gaps of the highway;
• red or brown - some signs of vegetation;
• black - shading and all signs.

1. Objects indicated by off-scale conventional symbols on topographic maps and plans must correspond to the location on the ground. To do this, they need to be placed according to certain rules.

The situation on the ground corresponds to:

• the center of the sign of regular-shaped objects (round, square, triangular) on the plan;
• the middle of the base of the symbol - for perspective displays of objects (lighthouses, rocks);
• vertices of the corner of the designation - for icons with an element of right angles (tree, pillar);
• the middle of the bottom line of the sign - for designations in the form of a combination of figures (towers, chapels, towers).

Knowledge of the correct placement and application of signs will help to correctly draw up a topographic map or a plan of the area, making them understandable to other users.

The symbolic designation of groups of objects should be done according to the rules below.

1. Geodetic points. These objects should be marked in as much detail as possible. The mark of the centers of the points is applied exactly to the centimeter. If the point is located in an elevated area, it is necessary to note the height of the hillock or mound. When drawing the boundaries of land surveys, which are marked with pillars and numbered on the ground, the numbering should also be displayed on the map.
2. Buildings and their parts. Building outlines should be mapped in accordance with the building layout and dimensions. The most detailed depictions of multi-storey and historically important buildings. The number of storeys is indicated starting from two floors. If the building has an orientation tower, it must also be displayed on the map.

Small buildings, such as pavilions, cellars, building elements, are displayed at the request of the customer and only on detailed maps... Building numbering is reproduced only on large maps... Additionally, letters can denote the materials from which the building is built, its purpose, fire resistance.

Conventional signs are used to distinguish buildings under construction or dilapidated, cultural and religious buildings. Objects on the map should be placed exactly as in reality.

In general, the detail and detail of the description of the characteristics depends on the purpose of drawing up the map and is negotiated by the customer and the contractor.

1. Industrial facilities. The number of storeys in buildings does not matter. More important objects are administrative buildings and pipes. For pipes over 50 meters, the actual height must be signed.

At enterprises that have mines and are engaged in the extraction of minerals, it is customary to designate objects located on the surface. The mapping of underground tracks is carried out as agreed with the customer, indicating the working and non-working branches. For quarries, a numerical designation of their depth is mandatory.

1. Railways are shown with a designation of their track gauge. Inactive roads should also be marked on maps. For electrified roads and tramways, a power line must be displayed nearby.

On the map, the designation of the slopes of roads, embankments and their height, slopes, tunnels and their characteristics is applied. Dead ends, turning circles and road endings are required.

Roads are marked with a certain sign, which depends on the surface. The carriageway must be highlighted with a line.

1. It is customary to divide hydrographic objects into three groups:

• permanent;
• indefinite - existing all the time, but the outlines of which often change;
• non-permanent - changing depending on the season, but with a pronounced source and direction of the channel.

Permanent water bodies are depicted by solid lines, the rest - by dash-dotted lines.

1. Relief. When depicting the terrain, horizontals or contour lines are used, indicating the heights of individual ledges. Moreover, lowlands and elevations are depicted similarly, using strokes: if they go outward, then an elevation is depicted, if inward it is a depression, a gully or a lowland. In addition, if the contour lines are close to each other, the slope is considered steep, if far - gentle.

A good topographic map should be extremely accurate, objective, complete, reliable, and clearly delineate the contours of objects. When drawing up a map, it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the customer.

Depending on the purposes for which the topographic map is intended, some simplifications or insignificant distortions of minor objects are allowed, but the general requirements must be met.