Peoples of North-Eastern Siberia. Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of Wounds. Small Nations Housing
- Indigenous peoples of the Far East: economy, life, culture.
- Consequences of Russian colonization.
- State policy towards indigenous peoples of the Far East
Indigenous peoples of the Far East: economy, life, culture
The Russian Far East does not represent a single ethnographic region. Historically, the ethnic map of the region was extremely varied. Hundreds of tribes and clans inhabited a vast territory from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the borders of China and Korea. In the reports of Russian explorers of the 17th century. the Chukchi, Koryaks, Eskimos, Kamchadals, Yukagirs, Tungus, Aleuts, Gilyaks, Natkas, Achans, Goldiks, Solons, Daurs, Duchers and others are mentioned. Far Eastern aborigines have come a long way in their development. They were the first to inhabit the taiga and tundra, reached the shores of the Arctic and Pacific oceans, and created unique cultures. The peculiarities of the historical path of the aborigines of the Far East and the uniqueness of their cultures largely depended on the geographical environment against the background and conditions of which these peoples lived.
Ethnically, the territory of settlement of the Far Eastern aborigines represented several large areas, each of which has its own specifics, determined by the geographical environment, the process of historical development of peoples, their belonging to one or another language group, the productive activities of peoples and relationships.
The Far North-East of Asia - the Chukotka-Kamchatka ethnographic region - is inhabited by the Chukchi (self-name - Chavchu); Eskimos (self-name - Inuit); Koryaks (self-name - Namylan, Chauch), Itelmens (Kamchadals), Aleuts (Unchan). The formation of these peoples, as evidenced by sources, began during the protracted Neolithic period. The Chukchi, Koryaks, and Itelmens are the autochthonous population of Chukotka and Kamchatka. Their ancestors - the aborigines of the Far Northeast - were continental hunters of wild deer, and also hunted sea animals and were engaged in fishing. Interethnic and intraethnic relations were poorly developed. At the beginning of the new era, the Eskimos appeared in the Far Northeast with their specialized culture of marine hunting. They influenced the production activities, culture and language of the Chukchi and Koryaks. In turn, the Eskimo language absorbed a significant amount of Chukchi-Kamchatka vocabulary. According to I. S. Vdovin, with the advent of the Eskimos, conditions appeared for the gradual development of the exchange of products of marine hunting for products of land hunting and reindeer husbandry.
By the beginning of the 17th century. Socially, the peoples of the Far Northeast were at the stage of a primitive communal system. By language they belonged to the Paleo-Asian and Eskimo-Aleut groups. By the end of the 17th century. the population of the Far Northeast, according to I. S. Gurvich and B. O. Dolgikh, was 40 thousand people. The economic activities of the peoples of the Far Northeast were complex. Thus, the sea hunting industry of the Eskimos and Chukchi was combined with hunting, fishing and gathering, and fishing, the leading branch of the economy of the coastal Koryaks, was combined with sea hunting. Pastoral reindeer husbandry coexisted with hunting wild deer. The main occupation of the Itelmens was fishing, and their secondary occupations were land and sea hunting and gathering. The Aleuts were engaged in sea hunting.
The taiga-tundra regions of the Okhotsk coast, Northeast Asia and the north of the Amur region were the place of residence of the Evens (Lamuts, self-name - Even, Oroch), Evenks (old name - Tungus), Yukaghirs (self-name - Odul), who were also at the stage of the primitive communal system . The languages spoken by these peoples belong to the Tungusic group of languages. The ethnogenesis of the Yukaghirs, Evens and Evenks (Tungus) is complex. Many researchers of Siberia consider the Yukaghirs as direct descendants of the ancient aboriginal population of the northern Far East - continental wild reindeer hunters and fishermen. According to I.S. Gurvich, the Yukaghir tribes, despite their isolation, were in contact with the northeastern Paleo-Asian, Tungus-speaking peoples and themselves took part in their ethnogenesis. In the middle of the 17th century. In the north of the Far East there lived three Yukaghir tribes - Khodyntsi, Chuvans, Anauls. Autochthonous tribes of Siberia took part in the ethnogenesis of the Tungus (Evens and Evenks). A.P. Okladnikov and G.M. Vasilevich believe that once upon a time the distant ancestors of the northern Tungus lived near Lake Baikal. From the south and southeast, Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu tribes came to the Baikal region, mixed with the local population and probably gave rise to the Evens and Evenks. Subsequently, the ancient Tungus began to migrate both to the west and to the east up to the Okhotsk coast. However, according to researchers, the ethnic characteristics that make it possible to distinguish the Evens from the Evenks developed after the Russians arrived in Siberia. By the middle of the 17th century. the number of Evens and Evenks amounted to 8.4 thousand people. All these nations led nomadic image life. They were divided according to the type of farming into foot and reindeer. For the former, fishing, gathering and hunting were of paramount importance in the economy. The latter were engaged in transhumance reindeer herding and hunting wild deer. They also had a small herd of domestic reindeer, which they used as transport animals.
The third large ethnographic region - Amur-Sakhalin - covers the Amur region, Primorye, Sakhalin. These are areas inhabited by the Nanai (self-name - Nani, formerly - Goldy), Ulchi (self-name - Olchi), Udege (Ude, Udege), Orochi (self-name - Nani), Orok (old name - Ulta), Negidal (self-name - Elkan, Beyenian ), Nivkhs (old name - Gilyaks), Ainu. There is no consensus among researchers about the ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Amur region and Sakhalin. Is not it. Shrenk argued that the Nivkhs are the original inhabitants of the Lower Amur and Sakhalin, and their Tungus-speaking neighbors - the Ulchi, Oroks, Nanai - are very late newcomers who borrowed from the Nivkhs the basic methods of economic activity and forms of life. In turn, the Tungus-speaking groups, according to L.I. Shrenk, had a great influence on the Nivkhs. L. Ya. Sternberg, having studied the Tungus-speaking peoples, came to the conclusion that the Ulchi, Nanai, Orochi and Orok are representatives of a single tribe (nationality). Based on an analysis of the similarities in some elements of the homes of the Nivkhs and the peoples of Northeast Asia, it was concluded that the ancestors of the Nivkhs came from more northern regions. A.P. Okladnikov believed that already in the Neolithic on the Amur and Sakhalin the culture of the ancestors of the modern Nanai, Ulchi and Nivkhs began to take shape. According to A.P. Derevyanko, at the beginning of the new era, the agricultural population of the Mohe had a great influence on the peoples of the lower Amur, and exchange relations developed between them. All these nationalities were at the stage of disintegration of tribal relations. The inhabitants of the south of the Far East in the Neolithic period, judging by archaeological data, led a sedentary lifestyle. The basis of their economy was fishing. During the Early Iron Age, the population of the middle and upper Amur had already switched to agriculture. Agriculture was combined with hunting and, possibly, reindeer herding, which led to the penetration of Tungus tribes into the Amur Valley. Among the Nivkhs, crafts such as blacksmithing, boat-making, rope weaving, and the dressing of animal skins and fish skins reached a fairly high level of development. The Nanai people achieved great skill in building boats, making various types of sleds, skis, etc. Nanai products made from birch bark were distinguished by their high artistic merit. The Orochs have long been familiar with metal casting. The Ainu, in addition to fishing and hunting, were engaged in ocean fishing. Agriculture was mainly developed among the Duchers and Daurs. Agricultural products met the needs for bread, cereals and flour. Some of them went for exchange. In addition to farming, the Daurs were engaged in horse breeding and hunting. Horses were used for riding. The Daurians also knew crafts. They sawed logs and beams, built houses and made boats, wove ropes and ropes from nettles, and knew how to process metal. Essentially, the economy of all the peoples of the south of the Far East was complex and semi-natural in nature.
The aborigines of the southern part of the Far East actively developed interethnic contacts. The Nivkhs, Ulchis, and Nanais were engaged in the exchange of raw materials and local products. In the process of communication, interethnic marriages took place. For example, among the Ulchi there arose clans of Nivkh, Nanai, Negidal origin, and among the Nanai - Ulchi, Nivkh, etc. Linguistically, most of these peoples belonged to the Tungus-Manchu language group, the Nivkhs to the Paleo-Asian language group. In the documents of the pioneers of the 17th century. the Daurs and Duchers are mentioned, who were at a higher stage of social development, led a sedentary lifestyle, and experienced strong cultural influence from the Manchus and Chinese. The language of the Duchers was close to the Tungus-Manchu language, and the Daurs were close to Mongolian.
The centuries-old history of indigenous peoples is complex. Despite all the difficulties of living in the harsh climatic conditions of the Far East, the aborigines managed to create a rich material culture. The material culture of the aborigines was maximally adapted to the harsh geographical conditions of the region, the nature of production activities, taking into account those materials, means, products that nature gave them in the required quantity: taiga, rivers, ocean. Tools and means of transportation corresponded to traditional occupations. The tools of sea hunting and means of transportation by sea among the Eskimos and sedentary Chukchi had much in common. To hunt cetaceans, walruses, and seals, the Eskimos and Chukchi used a rotating harpoon. The Koryaks, in addition to this device, used non-rotating tips made of bone with symmetrically located barbs. They were also used when hunting small pinnipeds. To catch seals, the Chukchi and Eskimos used nets made of thin belts. Land hunting tools were quite uniform among all the peoples of this region: bows, spears, arrows with stone, iron, bone tips of various shapes and purposes; spears, darts, belt loops. Tools and means of fishing - locks, muzzles, spears, hooks, etc. The main means of transportation by sea for the Eskimos, Chukchi, and Aleuts were canoes and kayaks. The use of kayaks when hunting marine mammals, and kayaks when hunting wild deer at river crossings, is illustrated by the petroglyphs of Pegtymel. The Itelmens and Koryaks used bat-boats hollowed out of solid logs to navigate rivers and bays. The sedentary population - Koryaks, Chukchi, Eskimos and Itelmens - used reindeer, dog teams, various types of sleds (for passenger riding, for transporting goods, children), and ski poles as transport. The Yukaghirs hunted land animals with bows and arrows. In fishing on rivers, lakes, and bays they used a variety of gear: snouts, hooks, spears, nets made of horsehair, hooks, etc. The Evenki's means of transportation were sledges, into which the nomads harnessed reindeer. For the Yukaghirs, the means of transportation in the summer along the rivers were rafts, light birch bark shuttles, and dugouts; in the winter, they used walking kamus skis, similar to the Chukchi skis, and sleds, which were harnessed to dogs in a train. The aborigines of the south of the Far East - the Nanai, Ulchi, Nivkhs - used hooks, nets, and nets made from wild hemp and nettles in fishing. Large fish and sea animals were caught with harpoons. The Ainu used harpoons with detachable bone or iron tips to catch large fish. Seines - tools for collective fishing - appeared relatively late, when fish began to be caught for sale. The aborigines used adzes everywhere, which served as an axe. They were used to process wood, bone, and walrus tusk. Russian explorer of Kamchatka S.P. Krasheninnikov noted that even in the middle of the 17th century. The natives of Kamchatka made their tools - axes, knives, spears, arrows, needles - from deer and whale bone and stone. Axes were used to hollow out boats, bowls, troughs, etc. At the same time, as archaeological excavations in Sarychev Bay have shown, the natives of Northeast Asia were familiar with iron in the 1st millennium AD. e. But the widespread use of iron tools became possible only with the arrival of the Russians.
The natural conditions in which the Far Eastern aborigines lived and their economic activities determined the nature of the settlements, type of housing, way of life, and clothing. Archaeologists discovered that permanent settlements were only among those peoples who led a sedentary lifestyle and were mainly engaged in fishing or sea hunting. At the same time, settled peoples - Eskimos, coastal Koryaks, Nivkhs, Ulchis, Nanais - had both permanent settlements and temporary settlements - fishing, seasonal. The nomadic peoples (Chukchi, Koryaks), who were engaged in taiga hunting and reindeer herding, did not have permanent settlements. The main settlements were winter ones. Some villages of Eskimos and sedentary Chukchi were in one place for tens, or even hundreds of years. The Itelmens lived in temporary villages in the summer, where they fished, and in the winter they moved to villages consisting of dugouts. For the majority of the settled population of the Amur, the main life was concentrated in winter villages, where there were barns, as well as summer dwellings. The types of dwellings were varied. In Kamchatka and Chukotka, semi-dugouts with an entrance through a smoke hole in the roof were widespread. Such dwellings in the 18th century. were preserved by the Itelmens and Koryaks; several related families lived in them. The reindeer Chukchi and Koryaks had a portable yaranga (yurt) in which they lived all year round. It was a multifaceted frame with wooden supports and a roof. Sometimes a canopy made of poles covered with reindeer skins was added to the Koryak winter dwelling. In the summer, the Itelmen moved to a booth - these are round or quadrangular double buildings supported by nine or twelve pillars. The Aleuts lived in dugouts, and in the summer they settled in above-ground dwellings. The Yukaghirs lived in large settlements - forts in dugouts; in the summer they moved into felled rectangular buildings. The winter home of the Even nomads was a portable conical tent. For sedentary groups, the winter home was a log house or half-dugout with a fireplace made of poles coated with clay. The settled Nanai, Ulchi, Orochi, “lower” Negidals and Nivkhs had a permanent home in the 17th–18th centuries. was a building in the form of an ordinary house with pillar frames, a roof, an earthen floor, and with ditch heating. Each nation's summer home differed in shape and design. For example, the Daurs lived in settlements (of 60–70 frame-type houses). The buildings resembled the above-ground dwellings of the peoples of the Amur region and Manchuria. The villages (fortress towns) were surrounded by earthen ramparts and walls. Around them were fields and grazing areas. In the XVIII–XIX centuries. The peoples of the Far East gradually mastered the technique of Russian log house construction. Russian stoves appeared, and bunks or beds were installed in place of the kans. Russian hut at the beginning of the 20th century. became the main type of housing.
The clothing of the peoples of the Far East developed in ancient times and changed over the centuries. The character and type of clothing of the aborigines was influenced by climatic conditions and the fishing activities of the peoples. The peoples of Northeast Asia used closed clothing of the northeastern type. Winter clothing for men was a short double jacket. The Koryaks and Itelmens wore kukhlyankas with a hood and a small bib sewn to the front of the collar. Winter clothing made from bird skins (parkas) was common among the Aleuts. In the summer they wore worn-out winter clothes, and also sewed special summer clothes from thick smoke cloth, rovduga (suede), intestines of sea animals, and bird skins. The clothes of the Evens, Evenks, and Yukaghirs were of a swing type and cut and had two versions of the caftan cut: it was sewn from skins, less often from rovduga; under the caftan in winter they wore a second one, sewn with fur inside; it also served as summer clothing. The Yukaghirs sewed clothes from tanned deer skins; had armor, kuyaks and helmets made of bone plates. The Nanai, Ulchi, Nivkhs, Oroks, and Udyges wore wrap-around clothing with a double left hem. They made clothes from cloth, suede, and fish skin. Ainu winter clothes are robes made of cloth, animal skins or elk skin. In summer the Ainu wore headbands and in winter they wore fur hats. Festive clothing did not differ in cut from everyday clothing, but it was richly decorated with embroidery, appliqués, fur mosaics, and beads. The Koryaks sewed fringes and tassels from thin white mandarka, sewn with colored beads, and appliqués in the form of jagged strips cut out of mandarka onto their festive clothes. The Itelmens sewed festive parkas from sable, deer or dog fur, and decorated the fur with decorative stripes. During celebrations, the Aleuts wore a new parka, richly decorated with fur straps.
The food of the Far Eastern peoples was also varied. The main food of polar hunters - Eskimos, coastal Chukchi and Koryaks - is walrus, seal and whale meat in different types(ice cream, boiled, dried). Whale skin was eaten raw; Venison was highly prized. Vegetable foods, seaweed, and shellfish were used as seasonings. The Itelmens' main food was fish - “Kamchatka bread”. They ate dried fish (yukola), smoked and pickled. Russian traveler V.M. Golovnin noted that “Kamchadals very rarely salt fish. A small part is smoked, the rest is air-dried or fermented; that is, they put fresh fish in a hole and bury it with earth, where it spoils and rots. This abomination is called sour fish here, but the Kamchadals are extremely fond of sour fish.” The Evens and Evenks ate mainly deer and elk meat, which was prepared by sun-drying in finely chopped form. Soup was prepared using meat broth with the addition of blood. Sausage was made from the intestines, yukon was made from dried fish, and flour was made from dried fish. In the summer they consumed large quantities of reindeer milk, berries, wild garlic, and onions. The main drink is tea with reindeer milk and salt. The food of the population of the southern part of the Far East was predominantly fish. They consumed fish in different forms: boiled, raw, canned. Soups from fresh or dried fish, as well as meat, were prepared with a variety of seasonings - wild herbs and roots. A lot of fish oil was added to a dish made from purchased products (cereals, pasta, noodles). It was also eaten with berries, which were used in large quantities in salads, mainly from fish and various roots. Tea was brewed from chaga, lingonberry leaves, mint, wild rosemary shoots, etc.
The centuries-old experience of life of the indigenous peoples of the Far East is reflected in the spiritual culture. Being the creators of a unique spiritual culture and original applied art, they made an invaluable contribution to the treasury of world culture.
Folklore occupied a significant place in spiritual life: myths, fairy tales, legends. All the peoples of the Far North had a myth about a cultural hero - the Creator Crow. In Chukchi folklore, the main feat of the Raven is obtaining light. Raven stole the Sun from evil spirits, created mountains, rivers, people and animals, using seal bones, wood chips, grass and flint as material. In Eskimo myths there are stories about the creation of the sushi Raven. In Koryak-Itelmen myths, much attention is paid to the family life of Raven: his wife, brother, sister, as well as children and grandchildren usually appear. Heroic tales among the peoples of the Far Northeast arose in the era of the decomposition of the tribal system and the beginning of the stratification of primitive society. Main actor Heroic legends feature a human wolf-hunter, distinguished by physical strength and ingenuity. Many heroic tales were based on true historical events: major clashes, internecine enmity between individual communities and families. Thus, in Chukchi tales the opponents are the Koryaks, in Koryak tales the Chukchi are the opponents. In Itelmen folklore there is a single cycle of legends about the hero Tylval.
Among the peoples of the south of the Far East there are cosmogonic, totemic and other myths. Cosmogonic myths tell about the origin of the Universe. For example, the myths of the peoples of the Amur region tell about the participation of the Swan and the Eagle in the creation of the world. Totemic myths tell about the connections between a person and an animal, which then becomes the patron of the clan. Thus, the Orochi and Nanais considered the tiger their ancestor, the Nivkhs considered the bear to be their ancestor. They all believed that animals, if they wanted, could always take off their skin and become human.
Folk decorative art occupied a large place in the life and everyday life of the aborigines. It reflected not only the original aesthetic worldview of peoples, but also social life, the level of economic development and interethnic and intertribal ties. The traditional decorative art of nationalities has deep roots in the land of their ancestors. Vivid evidence of this is the monument of ancient culture - petroglyphs (drawings and writings) on the rocks of Sikachi-Alyan. The art of the Tungus-Manchus and Nivkhs reflected the environment, aspirations, and creative imagination of hunters, fishermen, and herb and root gatherers. The original art of the peoples of Amur and Sakhalin has always delighted those who came into contact with it for the first time. The Russian scientist L.I. Shrenk was very impressed by the ability of the Nivkhs (Gilyaks) to make crafts from various metals, to decorate their weapons with figures made of red copper, brass, and silver. A large place in the art of the Tungus-Manchus and Nivkhs was occupied by cult sculpture, the materials for which were wood, iron, silver, grass, straw in combination with beads, beads, ribbons, and fur. Researchers note that only the peoples of Amur and Sakhalin knew how to make amazingly beautiful applications on fish skin, and paint birch bark and wood. The life of a hunter, sea hunter, and tundra reindeer herder is reflected in the art of the Chukchi, Eskimos, Koryaks, Itelmens, and Aleuts. Over the course of many centuries, they achieved perfection in carving walrus ivory, carving on bone plates depicting dwellings, boats, animals, and scenes of hunting sea animals. The famous Russian explorer of Kamchatka, Academician S.P. Krasheninnikov, admiring the skill of the ancient peoples, wrote: “Of all the work of these other peoples, which they do very cleanly with stone knives and axes, nothing was as surprising to me as a chain made of walrus ivory... She consisted of rings, the smoothness of which was like chiseled ones, and was made from one tooth; its upper rings were larger, the lower ones smaller, and its length was slightly less than half an arshin. I can safely say that in terms of the purity of the work and the art, no one would consider anything else to be the work of a wild Chukchi and made with a stone tool.”
Throughout the entire historical development of the peoples of the Far East, their songs were formed. The most ancient layers of musical culture are manifested in the “bear festival” of the peoples of the south of the Far East. The main character of Yukaghir songs and fairy tales was a smart and brave hare. Folklore - legends, myths, traditions - preserved the norms of law, ethics and morality. The traditions of musical art were passed on from generation to generation. The most widespread is the circular dance, the round dance. The performance of songs and dances was accompanied by organ music. The holidays ended with mass games, during which they competed in wrestling, running, and archery. The art of dance played a very important place in Aboriginal culture. Play dances were widely practiced among the Eskimos, Chukchi, Koryaks, and Itelmens. Ritual dances were of a magical nature, dedicated to the end of the hunt or seeing off the souls of killed sea animals at sea, or the ceremonial meeting of hunted sea animals. They were performed by elderly women to the accompaniment of a tambourine or singing. The performers, while dancing, imitated the habits of the animals, trying to “appease” him and cheer him up.
Special dances are characteristic of the Evenks and Evens. They had round dances that moved in a closed circle, following the course of the Sun, accompanied by the singing of the performers themselves.
Consequences of Russian colonization
The inclusion of indigenous peoples into the Russian state was of particular importance for the historical development of the indigenous population. Constant contacts with Russian people led to various changes in the life of the indigenous population. This process was progressive, but complex. Gradually, the involvement of the semi-natural economy of the aborigines in the all-Russian economy brought the Far Eastern peoples out of their primitive isolation and isolation. Under the influence of the Russian population, some of the aboriginal groups began to engage in gardening and livestock farming, which were mainly of a subsistence nature. Many indigenous groups gradually moved from reindeer herding, hunting and fishing to hunting fur-bearing animals and trading furs in exchange for industrial goods and European products; others, changing the nature of reindeer herding, moved from small-herd to large-herd.
In the XIX – early XX centuries. the economies of the indigenous population were drawn into the sphere of capitalist production. Furs acquired commercial value; products of reindeer husbandry, fishing, and marine hunting were partially put on the market. The emergence of commodity-money relations contributed to the disintegration of the patriarchal-tribal system among indigenous peoples. The custom of sharing large meat kills and the most valuable hunting products (for example, antlers) gradually disappeared. Private ownership of fishery products expanded; personal property appeared even among members of the same family: husband, wife, children. By the beginning of the 20th century. national communities split into rich and poor. Individual representatives of the wealthy elite moved to cities, breaking with their national environment. Ancient customs, customary law, and traditions were forced out of the indigenous population by private interests. However, this process had its own characteristics among different peoples. Among the Nanai and Ulchi, the clan organization collapsed by the middle of the 19th century. Among the Nivkhs this process was slower. The changes least affected the aborigines of the northern territories - the Koryaks, Chukchi, Evens and others. Social transformations in their midst were hampered by their continued isolation from the rest of the world and inconsistent contacts with Russian, Japanese and American merchants and industrialists. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Migration and mixing of populations increased both within one group and between different ethnic groups. In general, from the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. The ethnographic map of the region changed significantly and became more complex: the territories of groups engaged primarily in appropriating industries (Koryaks, Eskimos, Itelmens) decreased and, on the contrary, reindeer herders (Evens, Evenks) significantly expanded their territories.
The annexation of the Far Eastern lands to Russia also had negative sides. The fiscal policy of tsarism to a certain extent contributed to the conservation of archaic social relations and doomed the aborigines to severe exploitation and material vegetation. Unbearable tribute, absence medical care, unsanitary living conditions, abuses of the administration, oppression by merchants and Cossacks gave rise to the desire of the aborigines to free themselves from the oppression of the newcomer Russian population. In the 18th – early 20th centuries. There were several major clashes between indigenous peoples and Russian explorers. The most serious clashes occurred on the Okhotsk coast, Kamchatka, and Chukotka. The Chukchi were the most persistent in their struggle. The unbridled robbery of Russian and foreign entrepreneurs affected the state of the economy of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. The number of marine game animals, valuable fur-bearing animals, and valuable fish species has sharply decreased. The indigenous population was shamelessly exploited by both Russian traders and industrialists and their own. They paid for furs and fish with goods of the lowest quality; trading operations were often accompanied by the aborigines getting drunk with vodka.
As a result of the decline of the traditional economy, there was a shortage of food, and the mortality rate of the indigenous population from hunger, epidemics of measles and smallpox increased sharply. So, according to academician L.I. Shrenk, in the 1850s. 5,216 Gilyaks (Nivkhs) lived in the Amur region, and the 1897 census registered only 4,642 people. Such a difficult situation for the aborigines continued at the beginning of the twentieth century. The widespread spread of previously unknown diseases and mass alcoholism led to high mortality and mental and physical degeneration. The farming opportunities of the aborigines were further reduced due to the seizure and redistribution of land in favor of Russian and foreign entrepreneurs, and the commercial exploitation of the indigenous population. The indigenous population, unable to live off their traditional crafts, was forced to learn new occupations: hired work in the extraction and salting of fish, the collection of hay and firewood, and construction. Indigenous workers appeared in the mines and fields of the Amur region and Sakhalin.
State policy towards indigenous peoplesFar East
The Far East attracted the Russian tsarist government as a territory for implementing resettlement policies, while it tried to prevent the negative impact of the Russians on the indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Far East. In 1822, the Charter on the management of foreigners was adopted. It attempted to legally define the position of the indigenous population. The charter was imbued with the desire to preserve not only economic well-being, but also the original way of life. The government, despite all the measures, failed to bring into legal framework the flow of Russian colonization of the North and the Far East, which invaded deep into the lands, constantly violating the rights of foreigners. In 1892, a New Regulation on Foreigners was adopted, which was in force until 1917. According to this law, a department of elders was established in the Amur region, subordinate to police or volost departments. By 1916, a special “Regulation on the management of foreigners of the Amur region” was adopted and began to operate, developed with the direct participation of the Amur Governor-General N. L. Gondatti. According to this “Regulation”, most of the peoples of the south of the Far East were equated to the peasant class. However, the measures taken by the tsarist government did not have the desired result due to their unsystematic, episodic nature, and also due to the fault of local authorities who bypassed all decisions. At the same time, indigenous peoples, as subjects of the empire, were subjected to the disastrous manifestations of the policy of indifferent, passive attitude of the authorities in relation to raising the standard of living, their health, literacy, and maintaining national culture.
The situation that developed in the country during the First World War, the revolution and the subsequent civil war and foreign intervention aggravated the situation of the indigenous indigenous peoples. The threat of the collapse of the country as a result of the claims of interventionists and the fierce struggle of internal socio-political forces hit the economy of the areas where Aboriginal people lived. The fishing economy was in crisis, there were no connections with the southern regions, trade in furs and timber fell and, as a result, the population decreased. It was only in the 1920s that the process of extinction of indigenous peoples was stopped. under Soviet rule.
The most important feature of the state policy of the Soviet government in relation to indigenous peoples was that, unlike the policy of the tsarist government, it was carried out not only with the goal of preserving these peoples from extinction, but, mainly, of qualitative changes in their culture, way of life, and way of life. In a short time they had to become full-fledged and full-fledged citizens of the country. The country required enormous natural resources for restoration and construction. The state's attention was focused on the eastern regions. Minerals, timber, furs, fish, water resources - all these riches were hidden in the Far Eastern land. Even during the years of the Civil War, the Committee for the Study of Natural Resources was created in Moscow, which in the 1920s. launched extensive activities in Siberia and the Far East. In his activities, he encountered the problem of the condition of the aboriginal population. Numerous expeditions to the places of residence of northern peoples in the early 1920s. revealed a horrifying picture. Due to the military-political events of 1917–1922. these peoples were on the verge of extinction, so the Committee for the Study of Natural Resources in the 1920s. took a number of measures aimed at maintaining the lives of the northerners. Often this was expressed in the free supply of food, weapons, ammunition, and the provision of reindeer for use. Many areas of fishing and hunting grounds were returned to the people. They were exempt from state and local taxes.
In 1924, under the Presidium of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Committee for Assistance to the Peoples of the Northern Outskirts was created, which began to deal with the problems of the indigenous peoples of the USSR. Local committees were soon created. In 1926, the Far Eastern Committee of the North was established under the Far Eastern Executive Committee under the leadership of the outstanding organizer and scientist K. Ya. Luks. The inhabitants of the Amur region, Chukotka and Kamchatka called him the head of the “Big Committee”. The main task of the central and local committees was to study the life of indigenous peoples and provide them with assistance in the conditions of new social relations. These institutions fit organically into the management system being created.
In the second half of the 1920s. the lending and pricing policy towards indigenous people has changed. Local handicraft products found sales, and the purchasing power of the local population increased. Cooperative forms of management arose. In 1927, about 70 seasonal fishing cooperatives were registered in the lower reaches of the Amur. These were the simplest partnerships based on collective labor, associated with state and cooperative organizations with supply and marketing relations. There were no strict limits on catching fish for personal consumption.
Marine hunting was important at this time. In 1927, 800 bearded seals, 2,205 seals, and 927 beluga whales were caught in the Amur Estuary. At the same time, local residents handed over 1/5 of the products to the state and cooperative enterprises, and used the rest on their farms. Thus, by the end of the 1920s. The economic situation of the Nivkhs has improved significantly due to the increased ability to use natural resources for traditional use. During this period, many Nivkh families became acquainted with livestock farming, and livestock sales were carried out on preferential terms for them. In 1927–1928 40% of Nivkh farms had horses, 16.7% had cattle, 20% had poultry, 82.7% had dogs. Vegetable gardening also developed. In 1924, 30% of farms had vegetable gardens.
However, a number of factors hindered the modernization of farms. These include tribal relations, lack of common culture, and remoteness of places of residence. To overcome them, the Committee of the North took organizational, political and administrative measures. During 1927–1936 By his decision, 18 northern cultural bases were built, including 4 in the Far East. They were intended to solve pressing life problems and serve the needs of the population. The cultural base included a complex of social, economic and cultural institutions: a store, a school, a hospital, a bathhouse, and a Native House (something between a club and a hotel).
The peculiarities of the socio-economic development of the peoples of the Far East, their living conditions (scale of territory, small population, remoteness from the centers of the country), the nature of their fisheries gave rise to traditions of free use of fishing grounds. Interethnic ties were also facilitated by the exchange of locally produced products. However, the peculiarities of life and culture of the indigenous peoples contradicted the policy of accelerated construction of socialism, which was carried out in the country since the late 1920s. – early 1930s As a result, indigenous peoples experienced the negative consequences of industrialization and collectivization, which were aggravated by the ill-conceived national policies of the state. There is an opinion that in the conditions of industrial development of the Far East, national traditions, way of life, customs, and the economy of small peoples, in principle, could not be preserved.
The first blow to the fragile ethnosocial environment of the peoples of the Far East was dealt in the 30s–50s. 20th century, when collectivization began among them. The creation of collective and state farms was provided with financial support from the state. The first agricultural cooperatives appeared in 1928. By 1930, there were already several dozen fishing and hunting collective farms among the indigenous population of the Far East. The basis for collectivization was the decisions of party and state bodies. They largely did not take into account the peculiarities of the situation of indigenous minorities and were characterized by formalism and lack of thought. The Far Eastern Executive Committee decided to carry out collectivization among the ethnic groups of the North as part of a strict political course in 1931. Although the pace of collectivization was different for the territories, the indigenous inhabitants of the Amur region were covered by collectivization by 95% already in 1934. This figure indicated the mass coercion of residents to enroll in collective farms . Historians are aware of documents indicating a feeble attempt by the leadership to justify excesses in the policy of dispossession and to find the real culprits of violence against the people. Also since the late 1980s. materials about illegal repressions of citizens became public. “Enemies of the people” were also found among the Far Eastern peoples; hundreds of people were thrown into NKVD camps. But nothing could justify the threat of starvation. The country suffered greatly from the consequences of collectivization. There was a gradual displacement of indigenous peoples from traditional forms of economic activity: hunting, fishing, and marine hunting.
A special role in economic transformations in the Far East (?) was assigned to Integral Cooperation (Integral Union), created in 1926 to supply and sell products, promote fishing, and provide loans to the indigenous population. An analysis of its activities showed that excessive attention to national fishing areas for the procurement of furs and valuable fish species, low purchasing prices forced hunters to predatoryly destroy fur-bearing animals in order to ensure their existence. Social competition and exceeding plans led to the erosion of biological resources and did not ensure the reproduction of fish stocks, fur-bearing and sea animals. This was especially typical for fishermen in the Khabarovsk and Lower Amur regions. In this regard, the activities of Integral Cooperation were discontinued in 1938.
Only from the second half of the 1930s. positive changes began to emerge. Along with traditional crafts (hunting, fishing, reindeer herding), collective farms began to engage in vegetable farming, cage fur farming, and beekeeping. In order to mechanize traditional fisheries, motor fishing stations, marine hunting stations, and marine animal processing plants were opened, which served as MTS on agricultural collective farms. But it was not possible to completely overcome the deep-seated consequences of complete collectivization. In 1935 An independent economic unit was created - the Middle Amur Fishery Union. It united 48 fishing collective farms, geographically located in two districts (Komsomolsky and Nanaisky) with a total length of 500 km along the bank of the river. Amur. Collective farms were created on the ground, i.e., camps of traditional nature management of the indigenous population. Moreover, the number of collective farmers constantly increased, and the planned targets for catching fish grew significantly from year to year, despite the fact that during its entire existence the Fishery Union never coped with the task assigned to it.
Simultaneously with collectivization, a number of settlements were liquidated, and sometimes forced relocation to poorly located villages. A unified approach began to be implemented; the peculiarities of cultures, customs, and lifestyles of indigenous peoples were not taken into account at all. This policy led to the destruction of people’s connection with the traditional economic system, to the loss of the national and cultural identity of peoples, to their forced inclusion in another, alien way of life.
After the Great Patriotic War, the remaining population was resettled into enlarged collective farms; In some populated areas national and Russian collective farms were united.
In the 1950s–1960s. The life of indigenous residents began to improve due to changes in the material and technical support of collective farms, but the process of resettlement from traditional villages to enlarged settlements continued until the end of the 1970s. The separation of many families from their native soil (native village) and their relocation to new places led to the rapid destruction of the national culture. In the 1960s With the organization of industrial farms, the alienation of the aborigines from hunting began. This process had a particularly strong impact on the lives of the Negidal people, for whom hunting has always played a big role. They were gradually replaced by newcomer hunters from the lands. At the same time, some scientific conclusions regarding the negative consequences of resettlement and the ability of the hunting resource base to ensure sustainable development of the fishery without the threat of extinction from starvation continue to remain controversial. Habitat of indigenous minorities by 1950–1970 has been significantly transformed; the population could no longer live on the existing resource base. At the same time, there was no necessary critical mass of the population among the aborigines, which could live according to the laws of their fathers and grandfathers. The artificial concentration of the population, the “internalization” of children, the loss of communication between generations, all this led to alienation from the past traditional way of life.
The activities of local bodies of Soviet power were accompanied, on the one hand, by a total impact on the traditional ethnocultures of the peoples of the North in order to increase their modernized potential, and on the other hand, by the deployment of large-scale social programs designed to minimize the possible negative consequences of such modernization. The real changes that took place in the lives of peoples in the 1930s–1960s, interpreted by official propaganda and substantiated by Soviet science as unambiguously positive, for a long time prevented the negative consequences of such a policy from being noticed, much less made public.
At the same time, one cannot fail to note the positive changes in the situation of indigenous peoples that have occurred as a result of policies aimed at preserving health, developing education, and changing their way of life.
In the 1920s traveling medical teams became the main form of medical care for the indigenous population. In the Far East, such detachments first appeared in 1924. At first there were 2 of them, later there were 23. Since 1932, they began to create a permanent network of paramedics and medical stations in crowded areas. Many diseases were cured, and people believed in the effectiveness of medicine. Within ten years after the 1926–1928 Aboriginal Census. In the districts and regions of the Far East, the number of indigenous peoples by 1937 had grown from 49,902 to 62,761 people, which amounted to a 123% increase.
The situation was also poor with the Aboriginal literacy rate, which was 3%. After the establishment of Soviet power, the eradication of illiteracy began. Schools and mobile training centers were opened. When organizing studies, the peculiarities of the life of the population were taken into account. The adopted resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of July 25, 1935 “On universal compulsory primary education” ordered that universal education be carried out in the Far North no later than 1934, and for areas with a nomadic population by 1935. In 1934, the general literacy of the indigenous of the population was 25%, and Nanais - 50%. However, despite the measures taken, including the introduction of universal primary education in the country, it was not possible to enroll all children in school even by 1940.
The creation of national scripts took place in 1931–1936. The Nanais, Nivkhs, Ulchis, Evenks, and Chukchi began to use Russian letters. This contributed to the inclusion of the peoples of the Far East in the world cultural process. The publication of magazines, newspapers, and books in national languages testified to certain successes in cultural policy. However, there were some excesses here too. The unification of the educational process had a particularly painful impact on children's schooling. Since 1963, all schools located in areas densely populated by indigenous peoples have stopped teaching in their native languages. The Russian language was replacing national languages, and printed publications began to decline. The displacement of national “survivals” was considered a prerequisite for the formation of a person of a socialist worldview. Many traditions, rituals, and beliefs were condemned, and many positive and invaluable ancient customs were subjected to ideological pressure. The way of life of the peoples has changed radically and has become little different from the way of life of the Russian people. Gone are the colors and attractiveness of national villages, household utensils, clothing, games and entertainment. All this together caused great damage to the education of the younger generation of indigenous people.
The dual result of Russification is recognized by scientists in relation to all small peoples of the country, including the peoples of the Far East. Along with the negative manifestations of the policy of planting Russian culture, national cultures have reached significant heights, which is confirmed by the formation of scientific, creative intelligentsia from among small peoples. A major role in this was played by higher educational institutions created to train national personnel - the Institute of the Peoples of the North, opened in 1926 in Leningrad, the department of the peoples of the North at the Khabarovsk Pedagogical Institute, opened in 1934. Dozens of people have gained worldwide fame, among them such writers , as Nanai G. Khodzher, Udege D. Kimonko, Ulch A. Valdu, Chukchi Y. Rytkheu, Nivkh V. Sanga, singer and collector of folklore of the peoples of the North K. Beldy, Doctor of Philology S. Onenko, Doctor of Historical Sciences Ch. Taksami and etc.
In the 1960s–1980s. various and largely contradictory trends in the social development of indigenous indigenous peoples emerged and consistently intensified. The increase in the standard of living of the population and the stability of socio-economic development contributed to an increase in their numbers.
Dynamics of the number of indigenous peoples of the Amur region
Nationalities |
1989 to 1959 (%) |
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Udege people |
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Negidalians |
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Small nations were finally involved in economic turnover. Throughout the country, employment in public production in 1970 was 88.3%, in the region - 89%. The share of the population employed in social production (of the total working age) among the indigenous peoples of the Lower Amur in 1970 was: Nanai - 80.9%, Ulchi - 76.2%, Nivkhs - 73.9%, Udeges - 77.1 %., including among the male population, respectively – 89.5%, 82.6%, 84.2%, 88.6%. In the first case, the decrease in indicators was due to lower female employment compared to men. This was explained by the persistence of national traditions and a temporary reduction in demand for labor due to the reorientation of national fishing collective farms to new branches of production. The socio-professional differentiation of the rural population of the peoples of the Lower Amur increased. By the end of the 1970s. the share of those employed in collective farm production among Nanai rural residents was 59.7%, Ulchi - 40.4%, and the rural population was quite widely employed in the state sphere of the national economy. In industry and public education it ranged from 8.2% to 20.8%. The Nanai and Ulchi mostly lived on collective farms that specialized in fish production. In the 1960s–1970s. There was a change in the sectoral structure of fishing collective farms - the share of fish production was reduced in favor of other sectors. This led to a redistribution of labor within collective farms, between collective farm and state production in rural areas, as well as between city and village. More than 40% of Nanais and about 60% of Ulchi in the 1970s. were employed in state production, which could not but affect the preservation of national crafts and habitat. Negative phenomena generated by ill-conceived and hasty modernization began to grow. The resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of February 7, 1980 “On measures for the further economic and social development of areas inhabited by the nationalities of the North” was a belated step and could not radically change the unfavorable situation.
A significant loss of the national cultures of the indigenous indigenous peoples, the ongoing and intensifying attack on their habitat from year to year - these are the results of such a policy. The consolidation of populated settlements also continued in the region during these years. In the Khabarovsk Territory, 50 small villages, mostly populated by ethnic minorities, ceased to exist.
During the years of perestroika, scientists were involved in developing state policy towards indigenous peoples, developing a state concept for the development of indigenous peoples, taking into account both positive and negative experience in solving complex interethnic problems in the country and abroad. In 1989, a large team of scientists under the leadership of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences proposed a concept for the social and economic development of the peoples of the North for the period until 2010. Within the framework of this concept, key problems of support and development of the country's indigenous peoples were identified. These include issues of socio-economic, socio-cultural, medical and social development, problems of resettlement, the architectural living environment, the system of self-government of indigenous peoples
However, the hasty and ill-considered policy of restructuring the entire economic mechanism in the second half of the 1980s. ultimately led to the collapse of the economy and the deterioration of the situation of the entire population of the country, including the indigenous indigenous peoples.
The employment of the indigenous population in social production amounted to less than 50% of its number. This major problem arose after the cessation of state support that existed during the years of Soviet power, the collapse of consumer cooperatives that accepted wild plants from indigenous peoples, a significant reduction in the number of deer, and the collapse of collective fishing farms. According to the governor of the Khabarovsk Territory V.I. Ishaev, expressed in the early 1990s, the situation has developed in such a way that “... it has become clear and understandable that the Far East is falling out of the economic space of Russia.” Society's understanding of the importance of the problems that arose radically influenced the awakening of national self-awareness. The development of national movements took place especially actively in the late 80s. last century, when popular fronts, movements, and political parties began to be created. The indigenous indigenous peoples have not been spared this process either. In 1990, on March 30 in Moscow, at the first congress of indigenous minorities, the Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East was created. It included 30 regional ethnic associations created on territorial and territorial-ethnic principles, some of them were created at the time of the congress: in Koryak Autonomous Okrug, in Kamchatka, Magadan, Sakhalin, Amur regions, Khabarovsk Territory. After the congress, associations of indigenous peoples are actively being created in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, and Primorsky Territory. Associations are being formed: the branch of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, the association of the Aleut people “Ansarko” of the Kamchatka region. In 1997, the Far Eastern Union of Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Federation was formed, as a representative of regional and ethnic Associations of Indigenous Peoples of the Far East.
The highest body of the Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East is the congress, convened once every 4 years. Between congresses the Coordination Council headed by the President works. S. N. Kharyuchi was elected the first President. P.V. Sulyandziga became the President of the Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North of the Far East. The Association held 3 congresses of indigenous peoples. By 2000, 3 large-scale projects had been implemented. The first project is aimed at developing institutions for the indigenous peoples of the North; it includes three parts. The first is “indigenous peoples to indigenous peoples.” In February 1998, representatives of regional associations established close contacts with the Inuit community in Canada and studied the experience of their work. The second part is “government to government.” The State Committee for the Development of the North of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Indian Affairs and Northern Development of Canada discussed aspects of the development of the policies of the two countries regarding the Arctic. One of the successful results was the provision of humanitarian assistance in Chukotka in January 1998. The third part of the program is the provision of modern technological equipment to indigenous peoples' associations.
The second project “Development of circumpolar cooperation of indigenous peoples in protecting the rights and environment” at the theoretical and methodological level was implemented by 2000. Seminars and conferences on the problems of indigenous peoples were held, a data bank was created on project proposals from the regions, and data on environmental problems was collected. The Association is strengthening its influence in monitoring the processes of environmental development and rehabilitation.
At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. The indigenous peoples of the Far East are faced with numerous problems that have vital (vital) significance for them. The situation in some cases worsened for them by the beginning of the 21st century. But the situation cannot be viewed as catastrophic. Statements about the disappearance of small peoples from the ethnic map of the region are, to say the least, erroneous. Ethnosocial problems of small peoples are not something unique and exceptional in the world. In countries where indigenous peoples live, similar tasks are being undertaken to assist them.
The lives of the peoples of the Far East are also undergoing processes of slow development towards a market economy. The authorities are faced with the task of creating conditions for effective “adaptation” to new socio-economic and political conditions, developing protective mechanisms against the negative impacts of ill-conceived reforms and restructuring. Over the course of several years, the persistence of regional authorities, the public, scientists, and specialists from various sectors of the economy managed to “turn” the situation towards the revival of the economy and culture of the Far East. This, in turn, provides a broad opportunity to resolve pressing issues of life and further progress of indigenous peoples. In 2004, the 10th anniversary of the world's indigenous peoples, declared by the UN, ended. The main development guidelines have been identified. In the Far Eastern regions of the Russian Federation, measures have been planned and implemented to overcome the negative consequences of state policy in the socio-economic sphere. A reduction in the number of individual indigenous peoples is taking place in modern conditions, but it cannot be called catastrophic.
Indigenous minorities of the Khabarovsk Territory (according to census data)
Whole population |
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Peoples of the North Including: |
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Udege people |
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Negidalians |
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In the Khabarovsk Territory, the “Main Directions for the Development of Indigenous Minorities for 2002–2005” have been approved. Over the course of three years, 4 regional laws and more than 20 decrees of the governor and the regional government on the development of small peoples were adopted. The development of the “Program for the Development of Indigenous Minorities for 2006–2008” is nearing completion. The issue of representation of indigenous peoples in the region's Legislative Duma is being considered.
Since 2001, there has been a protected item in the regional budget that provides for the allocation of funds for the socio-economic development of indigenous minorities. In 2005, it is planned to allocate more than 10 million rubles, 7.5 million of which are included in the federal budget. Work is being carried out in two main directions: creating normal living conditions and boosting the economy of ethnic villages. There are programs such as “Fresh Bread” - installation of bakeries, “Clean Water” - construction and repair of water supply sources, training and advanced training of personnel for national enterprises. For economic potential, the idea of creating basic enterprises in national villages is being implemented. National farms have been allocated about 19 million hectares of hunting grounds, more than 100 fishing grounds, the volume of timber harvested by them reaches 100 thousand cubic meters per year, and the catch of slaves of various species in 2004 reached 2,700 tons. There are still problems with preserving the fish catch; it is often sold for next to nothing at the place of catch, which causes damage to the state, nature and the population itself, which does not receive decent wages for their work. There is also no system for processing and marketing wild plants. The regional center “Priamurye”, intended for these purposes, is at the organizational stage. Processing of various taiga fees will be carried out on the basis of Forest Products LLC. Over the past 3 years, 10 sawmills have been transferred to national farms. Extensive work was carried out by the national community “Amur” from the village of Sinda, Nanai region. She managed to develop logging and lumber production; in 2004, a brick factory opened in the village.
The issue of training specialists from among the indigenous indigenous peoples and replenishing them with the labor resources of the Far East is being gradually resolved. There are schools that have the status of indigenous minorities schools, so in Nikolaevsk-on-Amur there are two of them: medical and pedagogical. Students receive free education and are fully supported by funds from the regional budget. A branch of a technological college was opened in the village of Bulava, Ulch district; in 2004, the first graduation of 14 young specialists took place. At the same time, the problem of employment remains; only half of them got a job. Targeted work with indigenous peoples is carried out at the Far Eastern Medical University, the preparatory department of which is financed from the regional budget. Khabarovsk State Pedagogical University has been training specialists at the Faculty of Indigenous Peoples since 2003. The regional government is developing programs in various areas: publishing books in national languages, preserving cultural values, supporting healthcare and education.
According to experts, speaking about protecting the rights and interests of indigenous peoples and solving their problems, it should be recognized that this requires the development and implementation of the principles of a new policy of the Russian state based on cooperation and partnership of all sectors of human and civil society, taking into account international experience and frank and objective recognition of the whole range of difficulties that have arisen in preserving the unique culture of indigenous peoples.
Civilizational changes in the modern world could not but affect the process of economic and sociocultural development of small peoples living in different countries. Russia in the twentieth century, which entered a period of global changes associated with revolutions, world wars and attempts to create a democratic state, invariably faces the most important problem of creating or maintaining conditions for the unique development of indigenous peoples.
Of the 45 indigenous peoples (IMNS) of Russia, a significant part of them live in the Far East. On the territory of the Khabarovsk Territory live the Nanais (Golds), Ulchi, Negidals, Nivkhs (Gilyaks), Evens (Tungus - Lamut), Evenki (Tungus), Udege (Ude), Orochi. In the Primorsky Territory - Evenks (Tungus), Nanai (Golds), Orochi, Udege, Taz; Sakhalin region - Evenks (Tungus), Oroks, Nivkhs; Magadan region - Evens (Tungus - Lamuts), Chukchi, Yukaghirs (Oduls), Chuvans; Kamchatka region - Evens (Tungus - Lamut), Aleuts, Koryaks, Itelmens (Kamchadals); Amur region - Evenks (Tungus); in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug - Evens (Tungus - Lamut), Eskimos (Inuit), Koryaks, Kereks, Chuvans (Etels); in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug - Evens (Tungus - Lamut), Aleut (Ungan), Chukchi, Koryak, Itelmen (Kamchadal), in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) - Evenk (Tungus), Even (Tungus - Lamut), Yukaghir (Odul), Dolgans. When examining areas of compact residence of indigenous peoples in the Far Eastern regions of the Russian Federation, the residence of other small nationalities is noted. Thus, in the Khabarovsk Territory live the Chukchi, Koryaks, Aleuts, Nenets, Khanty, Mansi, Dolgans, and Eskimos. The indigenous peoples of the Amur region live compactly in 54 villages. Among the indigenous indigenous peoples, only the Evens and Evenks live in the regions of the Far East and beyond; their numbers are 17,199 and 30,163 people, respectively (data for 2000). The remaining peoples are settled both compactly and throughout the region.
Indigenous peoples of the Far East (data for 2000)
Number |
Places of settlement in the Far East |
|
Evenks (Tungus) |
Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Amur region, Sakhalin region, |
|
Evens (Tungus-Lamut) |
Magadan region, Kamchatka region, Chukotka Autonomous District, Koryak Autonomous District, Khabarovsk Territory. |
|
Negidalians |
Khabarovsk region, |
|
Nanai (Golds) |
Khabarovsk region, Primorsky region. |
|
Khabarovsk region, |
||
Sakhalin region, |
||
Khabarovsk region, Primorsky region. |
||
Udege people (Ude) |
Primorsky region Khabarovsk region |
|
Aleuts (Ungans) |
Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka region, |
|
Eskimos (Inuit) |
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, |
|
Magadan region Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), |
||
Kamchatka region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Koryak Autonomous Okrug, |
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Itelmens (Kamchadals) |
Kamchatka region, Koryak Autonomous Okrug, |
|
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, |
||
Khabarovsk region, Sakhalin region. |
||
Yukaghirs (oduls) |
Magadan region Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), |
|
Primorsky region |
||
Chuvans (Etels) |
Chukotka Autonomous District, Magadan Region. |
|
The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) |
In general, the peoples of the North are small in number - this is one of their specific features. Their small number is not the only factor influencing the nature of ethnic processes, including linguistic and cultural assimilation and the preservation of native languages. The level of urbanization of peoples is lower in autonomous okrugs than outside them. Ethnic processes proceed more quickly if the foreign environment is long-standing and significant. Peoples who have preserved their traditional economy better preserve their national culture and, as a rule, their native language. A number of indigenous peoples have a tendency to move beyond traditional settlement zones to other areas. At the same time, the stable centuries-old settled pattern of small-numbered peoples is confirmed by the phenomenon of permanence identified by researchers as a characteristic feature of the ethnic group, which ensured the regional stability of their livelihoods. It is a historical national treasure and the wealth of the small peoples of the Far East. It must be taken into account when solving a complex of economic, medical and social problems in the places where indigenous minorities live.
There are changes in the nature of traditional sectors of the economy, employment, and the ratio of types of labor. The differentiation of activities is progressing. Indicators of the nature of employment of the population still differ significantly in individual regions of residence of the peoples of the North. If among the peoples of Sakhalin and Lower Amur the percentage of people employed in traditional areas reached 25%, then in the Chukotka and Koryak districts it was 80%, which is explained by differences in the settlement and demographic structure of the regions.
Research from the 1990s shows that alienation from the past traditional way of life among indigenous peoples is a fait accompli. In the conditions of technogenic civilization, the adaptation of the indigenous population to the changed factors of life is weak, and their competitiveness is low. The peoples of the North, being in their indigenous habitats, are forced to adapt, develop resilience, flexibility, and mental stability. At the same time, one cannot rely only on the internal potential of peoples, their ability to revive themselves, because this process can drag on for many decades and its consequences will be destructive.
Negative trends in the situation of the indigenous population were identified by scientists in the late 1990s. The traditional structure of the economy has not been preserved in full anywhere. It exists in the form of separate elements: hunting, fishing, reindeer herding equipment; a set of national clothes, means of transportation (boats, skis, sleds), techniques and methods of fishing. The number of people engaged in applied types of national craft is decreasing. Among the surveyed Nivkhs and Negidals, only 54.9% are engaged in such activities, namely: dressing skins, knitting nets, making skis, making clothes, shoes, carving, embroidery. No more than 57% expressed a desire to master types of crafts. Previous socio-economic development has changed the structure of professional skills, lifestyle, needs, and spiritual values. The state's orientation of peoples towards their return to their original culture, towards the revival of national types of economic activity without serious financial, material, organizational support, without involvement in social production is destructive.
The processes of degradation of industrial-type production in areas inhabited by indigenous peoples have had a decisive impact and are affecting employment in the sphere of the “official economy”. The reduction in the share of social production in the country's economy has led to the problem of employment in various sectors. The solution to this problem is associated with a change in the entire socio-economic situation in the areas where indigenous minorities live. Over the past ten to fifteen years, the number of people who believe that traditional crafts should be the main occupation has decreased. The reality is that, despite all the costs of socio-economic development, taking into account the equalization and distribution system of socialism, indigenous peoples have become conditionally subjects of established production relations. Therefore, the revival of all types of economic activity should occur at the intersection of community-tribal (collective), state-territorial and private enterprise.
Isolating this problem in the context of fulfilling the tasks of overcoming the difficult legacy of the past in the policy of the central authorities in relation to the Far East is directly related to important point. This is a definition of the regional constitutional and legal status of indigenous peoples of the Far East. According to experts, it represents a set of constitutional rights, freedoms and responsibilities of citizens of the Russian Federation, representatives of indigenous peoples living in the Far East, enshrined in the norms of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Charter of the constituent entities of the Far Eastern region and, specified by sectoral legislation, as well as constitutional guarantees that ensure implementation of these rights.
At the international level, this problem has been solved particularly actively in recent years. The United Nations has declared the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People since 1995. The purpose of this action is to strengthen international cooperation in solving problems facing indigenous peoples in such areas as human rights, culture, health, environment, education. Almost every year passed under a certain motto:
- 1996 – “Indigenous Peoples and Their Connection to the Land”
- 1997 – “Indigenous Health”
- 1998 – “Education and Language”
- 2000 – “Rights of Indigenous Children”
In Russia, many legislative acts and various regulations have been adopted. For 1996-1998 15 hearings on the problems of indigenous minorities were held in the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. The result of active legislative activity of the state is the following decisions:
- Law of the Russian Federation “On National-Cultural Autonomy” of June 17, 1996;
- Law of the Russian Federation “On the fundamentals of state regulation of socio-economic development of the North of the Russian Federation” dated June 19, 1996;
- Law on Employment in the Russian Federation" 1996;
- Law of the Russian Federation “On Education” 1996;
- Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 31, 1997 No. 1664 “On reforming the system of state support for the regions of the North”;
- Regulations on the State Committee of the Russian Federation for the Development of the North. Approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of June 30, 1998;
- Law of the Russian Federation “On guarantees of the rights of indigenous peoples of the Russian Federation; dated April 30, 1999;
- Law of the Russian Federation “On the general principles of organizing communities of indigenous peoples of the north, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation” dated July 20, 2000;
Apparently, the main document for the protection of the rights and interests of indigenous peoples of Russia is the federal law “On guarantees of the rights of indigenous peoples of the Russian Federation”. For the first time at the federal level, the possibility of legal regulation of issues vital for indigenous peoples has been provided. This allows Article 69 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation to work on guaranteeing the rights of indigenous peoples in accordance with the generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of Russia. At the same time, a number of issues arise that require further legal and practical elaboration. These include the following:
- the space of action of the law and the circle of subjects and objects of law in the locks of the mechanism of action of the law;
- resolving the problem of employment of the indigenous population;
- habitat and its influence on the development of ethnic groups;
- the relationship between the role of the federal state and local authorities, ensuring the representation of indigenous peoples, in creating conditions for preserving their identity and a decent standard of living;
- resolving the issue of ownership, possession and use of lands of various categories;
- exercise of the right to compensation for damage caused to the habitat of indigenous peoples.
Specialists from the Far East are subjecting the federal law “On the general principles of organizing communities of indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation” to serious analysis.” We can conclude that it is not aimed at protecting the rights of small nations. The impression from the Law is this: in order not to think for a long time, they combined certain provisions of the Law on Public Associations with Chapter 4 “Legal Entities” of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, and this legal “vinaigrette” was served for “digestion” by the indigenous population. Article 5 of the Law states that “the activities of communities are non-commercial in nature,” and in Article 17, paragraph 3, “communities have the right to sell the products of labor produced by its members.” If the community is a non-profit organization, then for what activities is it provided with tax benefits and benefits (Article 7, paragraph 1)? Article 8, paragraph 4 of the Law allows for the admission to members of the community of persons who are not members of small-numbered peoples, carrying out business activities and engaged in crafts traditional for small-numbered peoples. But now the entire rural population of the Far East is on the verge of survival, who, due to lack of work and money, are forced to engage in personal subsidiary farming as their main activity, trade, and temporary work in the city.
In general, by the beginning of 2000. According to a number of researchers and scientists, the most pressing ethnosocial problems are:
- Destruction of traditional economic and cultural types;
- Degradation of long-inhabited historical and cultural areas;
- Decrease in the birth rate as a result of abandoning the policy of having many children;
- Increase in the number of single-parent families;
- Assimilation with Russians and other migrant populations;
- Changes in the gender and age structure of nomadic householders, leading to separation of potential brides and grooms;
- An increase in the number of single men and women, associated with the complication of concluding marriage unions between representatives of certain ethnic groups of the Far East;
- An increase in out-of-wedlock births and an increase in mixed marriages;
- Increasing socio-demographic and environmental crises in the places of traditional residence of indigenous peoples;
- Destruction of the traditional way of life;
- The eradication of “religious prejudices” (shamanism, animism), which for centuries regulated the interaction of representatives of indigenous ethnic groups with each other and with the “encompassing landscape”;
- The increase in the number of suicides and alcoholization of the population as one of the forms of response to the collapse of the traditional worldview during integration into industrial society
- Separation of the education of indigenous children from their traditional economy;
- Mass unemployment.
The creation of a legal framework for resolving the accumulated problems over the past decades has made it possible to determine some guidelines for the further work of state and public organizations, and the indigenous communities themselves. At the same time, the adopted laws revived production activities, but failed to ensure the effective functioning of the communities themselves. New economic conditions and socio-psychological factors prevent the peoples of the Amur region from actively engaging in production activities. Unemployment, which has engulfed all of Russia, is manifested on a particularly large scale among the aborigines. In particular, in Primorye in 1996, the Samarga Udege had 64% of the unemployed, the Iman Udege had 60.5%, the Bikin Udege, Nanai and Orochi villages. Krasny Yar - 58.3%, in the Olginsky district - 8.9%. The purchasing power of pension benefits has decreased by 10 times. The average monthly salary of Bikin Udege residents of the public sector is significantly below the subsistence level. In the late 1990s, studies of individual places of residence in the Primorsky Territory revealed serious problems in the provision of housing, education, health, and birth rates. According to a sociological study conducted in the Lower Amur at the beginning of 2000. the share of the working-age population from among the indigenous minorities not employed in public production was a significant part, exceeding more than half, and in the Nikolaevsky district 73.2%. At the same time, in the households from among the indigenous peoples, 90.8% were engaged in agriculture, 15.4% in livestock farming, 11% in hunting, 66.4% in fishing, 62.7% in berry picking, and 62.7% in mushroom picking. 57.3%. Most likely, indigenous peoples are experiencing a redistribution of activities. A significant share is occupied by traditional types of work, which make it possible to better achieve an acceptable level of providing families with food and consumer goods. At the same time, the situation in the early 2000s. allows you to correct your opinion about the situation of the indigenous peoples of the Far East. According to researchers, the idea of more high level unemployment among indigenous peoples, as well as the extremely low level of socio-economic status of their families, is a significant exaggeration. Proof of the fallacy of the stable public opinion about the plight of peoples is another indicator identified by sociologists - the material and technical security of their families. In 1999 in national families of the Lower Amur, with a level of officially registered income that was two or more times below the subsistence level, only 8.6% of families did not have any equipment, 4% owned cars or trucks, 18% owned motorcycles, 37% owned motor boats , 2.6% - snowmobiles, 32.3% - televisions, 54.7% - refrigerators, 64.7% - washing machines. At the same time, the level and quality of life of the surveyed families of indigenous northerners were almost no different from Russian families living in the same villages.
Currently, there is a real consolidation of indigenous peoples, caused by changes in both global and domestic development. Therefore, the new policy of the Russian state towards small nations must take into account the peculiarities of their life. The most important instrument of state policy in relation to indigenous peoples is the federal target program “Economic and social development of indigenous peoples of the North until 2010,” which is aimed at “creating conditions for the sustainable development of indigenous peoples of the North in places of compact residence based on the restoration of traditional environmental management and management based on the existing natural, production and infrastructure potential.”
To solve pressing problems of the further development of a unique original culture, it is important to study the historical path traversed by the peoples of the Far East. It was preserved in conditions of a radical disruption of established orders, the formation of a new type of statehood, the development and implementation of state policies that did not always meet the interests and needs of ethnic groups. Therefore, an important factor in the coexistence and mutual enrichment of cultures of all peoples of our country is the care and maintenance of the progress and prosperity of small peoples.
The peoples of the North and the Far East are called small in number. This term includes not only the demography of an ethnic group, but also its culture - traditions, customs, way of life, etc.
The legislation clarified the concept of small numbers. These are peoples with a population of less than 50 thousand people. This manipulation made it possible to “throw out” the Karelians, Komi, and Yakuts from the list of northern peoples.
Who's left
What are the known small Russian cities today? These are the Yukagirs, Enets, Tuvans-Todzhins, Kereks, Orochs, Ket, Koryaks, Chukchi, Aleuts, Eskimos, Tubalars, Nenets, Teleuts, Mansi, Evens, Evens, Shors, Evenks, Nanais, Nganasans, Alutors, Vepsians, Chulyms, Tazy , Chuvans, Soyts, Dolgans, Itelmens, Kamchadals, Tofalars, Umandins, Khanty, Chulkans, Negidals, Nivkhs, Ulta, Sami, Selkups, Telengits, Ulchi, Udege.
Indigenous peoples of the North and their language
They all belong to the following language groups:
- the Sami, Khanty and Mansi - to the Finno-Ugric;
- Nenets, Selkups, Nganasans, Entsy - to Samoyed;
- Dolgans - to Turkic;
- Evenks, Evens, Negidals, Sroki, Orochi, Nanais, Udege and Ulchi - to the Tungus-Manchu;
- Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens speak in families;
- Eskimos and Aleuts - Eskimo-Aleutian.
There are also isolated languages. They are not part of any group.
Many languages have already been forgotten in colloquial speech and are used only in everyday life by the old generation. Mostly they speak Russian.
Since the 90s, they have been trying to restore native language lessons in schools. This is difficult, because few people know him, and it’s difficult to find teachers. When studying, children perceive their native language as a foreign language, because they rarely hear it.
Peoples of Russia: appearance features
The appearance of the indigenous peoples of the North and Far East is monolithic, in contrast to their language. According to anthropological properties, the majority can be classified as small stature, thick build, fair skin, straight black hair, dark eyes with a narrow slit, a small nose - these are the signs that indicate this. An example is the Yakuts, photos of which are given below.
During the development of northern Siberia by the Russians in the 20th century, some peoples, as a result of mixed marriages, acquired a Caucasian facial shape. The eyes became lighter, their cut was wider, and brown hair began to appear more and more often. The traditional way of life is also acceptable to them. They belong to their indigenous nation, but their names and surnames are Russian. The peoples of the Russian North try to adhere nominally to their nation for a number of reasons.
Firstly, to preserve benefits giving the right to free fishing and hunting, as well as various subsidies and benefits from the state.
Secondly, to maintain numbers.
Religion
Previously, the indigenous peoples of the North were mainly adherents of shamanism. Only at the beginning of the 19th century. they converted to Orthodoxy. During the Soviet Union, they had almost no churches and priests left. Only a small part of the people have preserved icons and observe Christian rituals. The majority adhere to traditional shamanism.
Life of the peoples of the North
The land of the North and Far East is unsuitable for agriculture. The villages are mainly located near the shores of bays, lakes and rivers because they only have sea and river trade routes. The time during which goods can be delivered to villages across rivers is very limited. Rivers freeze quickly. Many become prisoners of nature for many months. It is also difficult for anyone from the mainland to get to their villages. At this time, you can only get coal, gasoline, and necessary goods using helicopters, but not everyone can afford it.
The peoples of the Russian North observe and honor centuries-old traditions and customs. These are mainly hunters, fishermen, and reindeer herders. Despite the fact that they live by the examples and teachings of their ancestors, their everyday life includes things from modern life. Radios, walkie-talkies, gasoline lamps, boat engines and much more.
The small peoples of the Russian North are primarily engaged in reindeer herding. From this fishery they receive skins, milk, and meat. They sell most of it, but still have enough left over for themselves. Deer are also used as transport. This is the only means of transportation between villages that are not separated by rivers.
Kitchen
Raw food diet predominates. Traditional dishes:
- Kanyga (semi-digested contents of the stomach of a deer).
- Reindeer antlers (growing antlers).
- Kopalchen under pressure).
- Kiviak (bird carcasses decomposed by bacteria, which are stored in seal skin for up to two years).
- Deer bone marrow, etc.
Work and trade
Some peoples of the North have developed it, but only the Chukchi and Eskimos practice it. A very popular type of income is fur farms. Arctic foxes and minks are bred on them. Their products are used in sewing workshops. They are used to make both national and European clothing.
In the villages there are mechanics, salesmen, mechanics, and nurses. But most of the reindeer herders, fishermen, and hunters. Families who do this all year round live in the taiga, on the banks of rivers and lakes. They occasionally visit villages to buy various products, essential goods, or send mail.
Hunting is a year-round activity. The peoples of the Far North of Russia hunt on skis in winter. They take small sleds with them for equipment, and they are mostly pulled by dogs. They often hunt alone, rarely in company.
Small Nations Housing
These are mostly log houses. Nomads move with plagues. It looks like a tall conical tent, the base of which is reinforced with multiple poles. Covered with reindeer skins sewn together. They transport such dwellings on a sleigh with reindeer. Plagues are usually placed by women. They have beds, bedding, and chests. In the center of the chum there is a stove; some nomads have a fire, but this is rare. Some hunters and reindeer herders live in ravines. These are slatted houses, also covered with skins. They are similar in size to a construction trailer. Inside there is a table, a bunk bed, and a stove. Such a house is transported on a sleigh.
Yaranga is a more complex wooden house. There are two rooms inside. The kitchen is not heated. But the bedroom is warm.
Only the indigenous peoples of the North know how to build such dwellings to this day. Modern youth are no longer trained in this trade, as they mainly strive to leave for the cities. Few people remain to live according to the laws of their ancestors.
Why are the peoples of the North disappearing?
Small nations are distinguished not only by their low numbers, but also by their way of life. The peoples of the European North of Russia retain their existence only in their villages. Once a person leaves, over time he moves into another culture. Few settlers come to the lands of the Northern peoples. And when children grow up, almost all of them leave.
The peoples of the North of Russia are mainly local (autochthonous) ethnic groups from the West (Karelians, Vepsians) to the Far East (Yakuts, Chukchi, Aleuts, etc.). Their population in their native places is not growing, despite the high birth rate. The reason is that almost all children grow up and leave the northern latitudes for the mainland.
In order for such peoples to survive, it is necessary to help their traditional economy. Reindeer pastures are rapidly disappearing due to gas and oil extraction. Farms are losing profitability. The reason is expensive feed and the impossibility of grazing. Water pollution affects fisheries, which become less active. The small peoples of the Russian North are disappearing very rapidly, their total number is 0.1% of the country's population.
A whole world of multilingual tribes and unique economic and everyday cultures existed before the arrival of the Russians in northeast Asia. The life of the tribes of northeast Asia before the arrival of the Russians can be judged from Russian archival materials of the 17th-18th centuries, news from travelers of that time and archaeological data. This information can be extended far into the past of these tribes, since the Russians found them at the Stone Age level.
104 Ibid.
105 V. Panov. Historical information about Hunchun. "Far East", 1900, No. 91, pp. 3-4.
The mainland areas, a huge territory from the lower reaches of the Lena to Anadyr, were occupied by Yukaghir tribes. By Siberian standards, the Yukaghirs were then a numerous people.
In the middle of the 17th century. There were about 4,500 Yukaghirs. They consisted of 12 tribal or territorial groups. About 450 Yukaghirs lived in the Lenya basin, about 1000 in the Indigirka basin, about 1600 in Alazeya and Kolyma, and 1300 in Anadyr. 106
In ancient times, the Yukaghirs were settled even more widely. 107 This is confirmed by the data of their language, which occupies a separate position among the surrounding languages. 108 Obviously, it was formed in a large closed area. The closeness of the Yukaghir language to the Samoyed languages indicates that in ancient times the Yukaghir tribes came into contact with the ancestors of the Samoyeds. 109 The narrow corridor between the Samoyed and Yukaghir tribes, occupied by the Lamuts and Tungus, was formed as a result of the relatively late invasion of these tribes into the lower reaches of the Lena and Olenek.
The fact that Yukaghirs recently lived on Olenek is evidenced by folklore: the enemy of Uren-Khosun, the hero of Olenek heroic tales, Unkebil-Khosun is directly called “Yukaghir” in one of the legends. The Yukaghirs entered the lower reaches of the Lena River in the middle of the 17th century. 110
The most ancient economic way of life among the Yukaghirs was that of foot hunters for wild deer. The Yukaghirs in the lower reaches of the Indigirka represent their ancestors as hunters of wild deer. In winter they pursued their prey on sleds. In the fall they hunted it with the help of decoys. In the summer, small herds of wild deer were driven into lakes, where hunters lying in wait for the animals approached the deer in boats and stabbed them with spears. For all groups of tundra Yukaghirs, hunting migrating wild deer at river crossings, at the so-called “reindeer hunts” or “animal swimming grounds” was of great importance. 111 “To cross, deer usually descend to the river along the bed of a dry or shallow channel... in a few minutes the entire surface of the river is covered with swimming deer. Then the hunters, hiding in their boats behind rocks and bushes and usually downwind from the deer, rush at them, surround them and try to hold them back. Meanwhile, two or three experienced industrialists, armed with long spears and poles, burst into the herd and stab the swimming deer at incredible speed. A good experienced hunter kills up to a hundred or more deer in less than half an hour.”
106 V. I. Ogorodnikov. Essays on the history of Siberia from the beginning of the 19th century, part II, issue I. Russian conquest of Siberia. Vladivostok, 1924 pp. 54-61; B. O. Dolgikh. The clan and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century. “Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography”, new series, vol. 55, M., pp. 379-442.
107 A. P. Okladnikov. History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, vol. I, p. 28 (-293; M. G. Levin. Ethnic anthropology and problems of ethnogenesis of the peoples of the Far East “Proceedings of the Institute of Ethnography named after N. N. Miklouho-Maclay”, New episode, vol. XXXVI, M., 1958, pp. 153-154, 204.
108 V.I. Iohelson. 1) Samples of materials for studying the Yukaghir language and folklore. “Izvestia of the Academy of Sciences”, vol.IX, No. 2, St. Petersburg, 1892; 2) Odul (Yukaghir) language. Sat. “Languages and writings of the peoples of the Far North”, part III,
109 Y. Andere. Die Uralo-Yukagirische Frage. Stockholm, 1956; Yu. A. Kre and no-vich. Yukaghir language. L., 1958, pp. 228-237.
110 Russian sailors in the Arctic and Pacific oceans. M.-L., 1952, pp. 276-277.
111 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 214, art. 274, pp. 172-173; f. 1177, op. 2, art. 6, l. 15.
112 F. P. Wrangel Travel along the northern shores of Siberia. M., 194", p. 221.
This is how F. P. Wrangel’s companion F. F. Matyushkin depicted hunting “on the water.” But the fishery was not always successful, then the Yukaghirs starved and whole clans died out.
Such hunting of wild deer at crossings was carried out in the lower reaches of Alazeya, Indigirka, Kolyma, and Anadyr. In those areas where there was a lot of fish, in the lower reaches of the northern rivers, fishing was important as an aid to hunting.
Groups of foot Yukaghirs lived not only in the lower reaches of rivers. In the upper reaches of the Kolyma and Yana rivers there are also places where fish accumulate in the fall heading to their spawning grounds. The accumulations of fish are so significant that, using the most primitive seines such as dragnets, the local population managed to stock up on fish for a whole year in a few days. Modern Upper Kolyma Yukaghirs call this method of catching fish “scooping”, and the places where fish accumulate are called “chemka”, “moner”.
It is characteristic that the remains of dwellings - half-dugouts, attributed by the local population to some extinct people ("Omoks"), are located not on the banks of the Indigirka itself, but along small tributaries and channels. Obviously, it was here (on the main waterways that fish follow the fairway) that the Yukaghirs could build pits with “muzzles” or other traps and install nets. During the runic passage, fish filled these channels, and then the Yukaghirs could provide themselves with fish with their primitive fishing gear.
The very names of the rivers where the Yukaghirs lived on foot - Kolyma, Indigirka, Anadyr - “dog” - indicate the important role that the dog played in their life - their only domestic animal, on which they transported their meager property. These were real dog breeders. Thus, in the lower reaches of the Indigirka, Russian servicemen met sedentary Yukaghir fishermen and dog breeders in 1639. “People are sedentary,” the Cossacks said about them, “and they ride on dogs.”113 However, in some farms of the Yukaghirs on foot there were also domestic reindeer. “On the same day,” Fyodor Gavrilov reported in the yasak book in 1648, “the great sovereign received 46 sables from the Kolyma foot prince and from the reindeer under his amanat Kandanga and from the whole clan.” 114 In 1659, the son of the Indigir Yukaghir Landyya-Checha contracted with the trading people as a guide with his reindeer. 115 The Upper Kolyma Yukaghirs also had deer. There were significant herds of deer in the 17th century. in the hands of the Yukaghirs - Khodyns and Chuvans. The first detachments of servicemen moved to Kamchatka on the reindeer of these Yukaghirs.
Tundra Yukaghir reindeer herders knew harness reindeer herding. The documents repeatedly mention sleighs and sleds.
The material culture of the Yukaghirs was much more primitive than the culture of their neighbors - the Yakuts and Evens. The Yukaghirs themselves described their past like this: “There were Yukaghirs, they had stone axes, they had bone arrows, they had knives made from rib bones. . . This is how we lived." 116 The weapons of the Yukaghirs were bows and arrows, spears, and stone axes. 117
113 Sat. Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century,” 1951, p. 143
114 “Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 1177, op. 4, book. 260,
f.1177. op.4, book. 260. l.1
115 Colonial policy of the Moscow state in Yakutia in the 17th century. L., 1936, p. 185.
116 V.I. Yochelson 1936 Materials on the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore, part 1. SPb. 1900 page 74
117 Ibid., p. 93
True, this does not mean that the Yukaghirs did not know iron at all. The Yukaghir language even has its own terminology related to iron processing. But there was so little of it that, according to legend, before the arrival of the Russians, the iron ax, the greatest value, was the property of the entire family. It was used by all its members only in cases where it was necessary to chop a thick, strong tree, which was difficult to do with stone axes.
There is another legend, which figuratively tells about the first axes received from the Russians. It says: “The Russians said: ‘Cut down the tree with this.’ Everyone began to chop. Some, having cut off their legs, died. They all threw away their stone axes. The (Russians) gave them knives.”118
By the time the Russians arrived, the Yukaghirs were divided into patrilineal clans. However, strong remnants of the maternal clan also remained, such as matrilocal marriage - the husband moved to live in his wife’s house and worked for the bride in her clan. Women enjoyed great independence among the Yukaghirs, and girls before marriage enjoyed great freedom.
According to legend, the successful, experienced hunter Khangicha, the breadwinner, enjoyed the greatest honor in the clan. The elders were at the head of the clan. Each clan had its own ancestral priest shaman (alma), who combined in himself a healer and a fortuneteller. In some Yukaghir groups, deceased shamans were deified.
“And the Yukaghirs will have faith: in which clan a shaman dies, then taking him, cutting off the body from the bones, drying the veins, wearing the clouds in a dress, they believe in him and carry him with them on reindeer,” the service people reported G.F. .Miller. 119 The bones of the deceased shaman served as a family guardian amulet. They were used to guess about the results of the fishery. 120
In 1652, when the Yukaghir amanats died from some disease, their relatives turned to the Cossacks with a request to preserve the “bone,” for which they promised to deliver yasak. 121 Along with shamanism, the fishing cult was widespread among the Yukaghirs. The Yukaghirs believed in the existence of “master spirits” of places and animals and believed that each creature had its own master spirit. Of the animals, the elk enjoyed special honor.
The closest neighbors of the Yukaghirs in northeastern Siberia were the Chukchi. In one of the early reports of the Lena Cossacks it was reported: “... and those Chukhchi live between the Alazeya and Kolyma rivers on the tundra, they say there are about 400 people or more.” 122 They occupied the mouth of the river. Kolyma. 123 To the east of Kolyma, the Chukchi were met at Cape Shelagsky, 124 from where further to the east their settlements were located along the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to Cape Dezhnev. On the coast of the Bering Sea, Chukchi villages were located from Cape Dezhnev in the north to Zal. Cross in the southwest. Throughout this entire area, Chukchi settled settlements interspersed with Eskimo ones. Throughout the whole
118 W. Jochelson. Material culture and social organization of the Koryak.
119 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, d. 481, part VII, l. 313.
120 V.I.Iohelson. Materials on the study of the Yukaghir language and folklore.
121 History of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, vol. II. M.-L., 1957, p. 107.
122 Sat. “Discoveries of Russian explorers and polar sailors in the 17th century,” p. 143.
123 B. P. Polevoy. Finding petitions from the discoverers of Kolyma. Sat. "Siberia during the period of feudalism", vol. 2, Novosibirsk, 1965.
124 Russian sailors in the Arctic and Pacific oceans, p. 100.
Apparently, even then there were villages with a mixed Chukchi-Eskimo population. South of the hall. Cross only in the lower reaches of the river. Anadyr, at the mouth of the river. Chukchi lived in Kanchalan. 125 These data are also confirmed by archaeological finds. 126 In the 17th century. on the river itself In Anadyr, apparently, there were no permanent Chukchi settlements. Consequently, in the southeast, the border of Chukchi settlement began at the mouth of the river. Kanchalana, on the northern shore of the Anadyr Estuary. Following to the northwest, the border of their settlement ran approximately along the middle course of the rivers flowing into Anadyr from the left (Tanyurer, Belaya). Then it passed northeast of the upper reaches of the Bolshoi and Maly Anyui, descending closer to the Chaun Bay through the tops of the rivers flowing into it, and came out to the river. Kolyma below the mouth of Anyui. Throughout the entire delineated space of the interior regions, purely Chukchi toponymy is preserved, while on the coast of the Bering and Chukchi Seas both Chukchi and Eskimo toponyms are preserved. There are no statistical data on the number of Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. No. However, based on information from the beginning and middle of the 18th century, it can be assumed that all Chukchi then numbered about 8-9 thousand. 127
The authors of the first news about the Chukchi of the 17th century. divide them by occupation into reindeer herders and sedentary sea hunters and at the same time indicate that both of these groups of Chukchi were intensively engaged in hunting wild reindeer. However, even then the specialization of one part of the Chukchi in the field of reindeer husbandry, and the other in the field of marine hunting, was clearly identified.
In 1647, M. Stadukhin characterized the economic activities of the Chukchi as follows: “The Chukchi are the same as the Samoyed, reindeer, sedentary.” A little lower in the same message it is said that the Chukchi ride on reindeer to the Bear Islands and there “they kill the sea animal walrus.” 128 Judging by the message of M. Stadukhin, the Western Chukchi then conducted a complex economy. They combined reindeer husbandry with sea hunting and, apparently, land hunting. To the east of Kolyma there was a more distinct division between the reindeer Chukchi and the sedentary sea hunters. The latter lived throughout the year on the sea coast, where they hunted marine mammals: walruses, seals and whales. In the summer months, they undertook long-distance hunting expeditions to the Kolyma, Amguema, Anadyr and other rivers, where they hunted wild deer while crossing them from one bank to another. It is known that huge herds of wild deer made regular migrations from south to north and back. In the spring they moved north and crossed rivers on ice, and in August-September, returning from the North, they swam across rivers in certain places. There were especially many such fishing spots on rivers flowing in the meridional direction (Anadyr and its tributaries). The Chukchi gathered to such places. They sailed in large kayaks with their families, accompanied by small single-seater kayaks in which hunters sailed. According to data from the mid-1st century, by the end of July the Chukchi sailed to Anadyr in “canoes of fifty or more, each with 15 and 20 or more people.” 129 Thus, people sailed to Anadyr from the coast of the Bering Sea
125 V.I. Ogorodnikov. Conquest of the Yukaghir land. “Proceedings of the State University of Public Education in Chita”, book I, Chita, 1922, p. 270; Archive of the Academy of Sciences, f. 21, op. 4, book. 31, l. 277
126 A.P. Okladnikov, V.V. Naryshkin. New data on ancient cultures on the Chukotka Peninsula “Soviet ethnography”, 1955, No. 1.
127 Colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century. L., 1935, pp. 158, 161, 179.
128 Additions to historical acts, vol.III, doc. 24.
129 Central State Historical Archive of Leningrad, f. Senate, Secret Expedition, 1552, l.12.
more than 2 thousand Chukchi, including women and children. By this time, reindeer Chukchi were gathering on the coast of the Anadyr estuary. They also took part in this large collective fishery. The hunt took place at the moment when a herd of wild deer swam across the river. When the deer reached the middle of the river, the Chukchi quickly rode out of the ambushes in single-seat kayaks, surrounded the deer and stabbed them with special “spikes” while “floating.” The beakers were strong and dexterous men, while other Chukchi, including women, caught the carcasses of killed and wounded deer carried away by the current. Apparently, they hunted a lot of deer. According to data from the first half of the 16th century, “when there is a good swim, then, not including babies, each person gets twenty deer.” 130 Autumn hunting provided meat and high-quality skins necessary for winter clothing, shoes and for making parts of the home. Deer meat was separated from the bones and dried. The bones of deer were finely crushed and the bone fat was rendered out of them, which was eaten along with dried meat and used for lighting. The Chukchi also hunted wild deer at other times of the year, using bows and arrows.
Hunting wild deer was an activity of both nomadic and sedentary Chukchi. This is their traditional occupation, dating back to ancient times. By the middle of the 17th century. it has already begun to lose its former significance both for the reindeer Chukchi and for those who lived mainly from sea hunting. Chukchi reindeer husbandry was still poorly developed. It was only acquiring the character of pastoral reindeer husbandry. The Chukchi herds of deer at that time were small. Deer were used mainly as a means of transportation and for hunting purposes. Reindeer herders existed mainly through hunting and partly fishing.
By the middle of the 17th century. The Chukchi, who inhabited the coasts of the Bering and Chukchi Seas, lived mainly from marine hunting. They obtained basic food products (meat, fat) from hunting marine mammals; Walrus skins were used to cover the frames of canoes (leather boats), to prepare belts needed for harnesses, for rigging canoes, for lines for harpoons, and were used for the roofing of summer yarangs. Raincoats were made from walrus intestines. Seal skins (seals, bearded seals) were used for sewing clothes, shoes, bags for storing various household items and some products, wineskins for storing fat; From them, belts of different sections were cut out, with which parts of the sleds were fastened, belt nets were knitted for seal fishing, and lines for harpoons were made.
The fat of sea animals was consumed as food and used for lighting and heating the home. Hunting tools, arrowheads, harpoons, picks, harpoon attachments, hunting sleds, parts of sailing rigging for canoes, and some household items (scoops, spoons) were made from walrus tusks. Walrus tusk also served as a material for making art objects (bone sculpture).
Whalebone was used to pad the runners of sleds; nets and fishing lines were woven from its fibers. Cups and inserts for harpoon tips were made from whalebone. Whale bones were used as building material (beams and crossbars of dugouts, hangers, storage sheds).
Hunting for whales and partly walruses was carried out from canoes using harpoons and was of a collective nature, while hunting
130 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts, f. 199, No. 528. vol. I-tetr. 19, l. 32.
for seals and polar bears was individual. The tools for hunting sea animals were mainly harpoons, spears, and knives of different sizes and purposes.
Walrus fishing was of greatest importance in the life of the coastal Chukchi; Walruses, in addition to meat and fat, provided highly durable skins. Walrus tusks were especially valuable for coastal hunters. Already in the first reports about the coastal Chukchi, the importance of walrus tusk as a material for making tools was emphasized. In 1647, Isai Ignatiev and the Alekseev Family reached the Chaun Bay on a kocha, “and in the lip they found people called Chukchi, and they traded with them for a small place. . . they took the merchant to the shore, laid it, and in that place they put the bones of a fish tooth (as walrus tusks were then called) a little, and not every tooth was intact; They made pickets and axes from that bone.” 131
Apparently, the Chukchi were little involved in fishing. Fish were caught with bone hooks, short nets woven from deer tendons or whalebone fibers. The nets were set from the shore.
When hunting land animals, the Chukchi used complex bows, arrows with various tips and spears. When hunting marine mammals, they used throwing spears (harpoons) with detachable tips, to which long lines were attached. A bow with arrows and a spear were also the weapons of the Chukchi warriors.
Deer antlers and bones were widely used as material for tools and household items. They were used to make arrowheads, piercings, parts of harnesses, handles, spears for reindeer sledges, spoons, hooks for hanging, knives, plates for armor and much more.
The main means of transportation of the Chukchi by land in the 17th century. served by deer. They harnessed them to sledges. The sedentary Chukchi apparently also used dogs. Then they had a fan type of dog team, which survived until recently.
The Chukchi had two types of dwellings - portable and permanent. The reindeer Chukchi used portable housing at all times of the year, while the sedentary Chukchi used it only in the summer. In winter, they lived in half-dugouts, the type and design of which they borrowed from the Eskimos. The building materials were jaw bones and ribs of whales, wood, and turf. 132 It is no coincidence that one of the types of semi-dugouts was called “valka-ran” - a dwelling made of jaws. Several families of close relatives lived in half-dugouts. Summer dwellings were above ground. Their frame was covered with the skins of walruses or deer. Inside they had canopies made from deer skins, and for the sedentary Chukchi - from the skins of polar bears. Fat lamps were burning in the canopies. They illuminated the home and provided warmth. 133
Chukchi household utensils were distinguished by their simplicity and few items. Fat lamps were hollowed out of sandstone or made of clay. The cauldrons necessary for cooking food were made of clay mixed with coarse sand. As Chukchi legends tell, clay and sand were mixed with the blood of hunted animals, and dog hair was added to this mixture for viscosity. In addition to earthenware, they had wooden utensils, mainly dishes on which
131 Russian sailors in the Arctic and Pacific oceans, p. 110.
132 S.I. Rudenko Ancient culture of the Bering Sea and the Eskimo problem. M.-L., 1947, pp. 69-108.
133 I S. Vdovin. Essays on the history and ethnography of the Chukchi. M. - L., 1965, pp. 44-49.
meat was laid out. Fire was produced by friction using a special bow projectile. The Primorye Chukchi cooked food on grease lamps in winter, and in summer in special rooms where they burned whale bones and poured fat on them.
The main social unit of both nomadic and sedentary Chukchi in the middle of the 17th century. there was a large patriarchal family with many remnants of more ancient social relations, in particular with remnants of group marriage, levirate, sororate, polygamy, etc. Even then they coexisted with both private and communal property: private property for deer, communal property for pastures, hunting grounds, dwellings, etc. They experienced the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system. Judging by folklore, they had an initial form of patriarchal slavery.
According to the Chukchi, the world around them was spiritualized. Each object lived a life similar to human life, although it had a different material form. The nature surrounding the Chukchi was filled with creatures benevolent to humans - vayrgyt and evil, harmful spirits - kelet. Benevolent beings helped a person in his work, and evil ones harmed him. They, for example, caused the death of deer, possessed a person, and brought him illness and death. The sun and stars are benevolent creatures. The most important being was considered nargynen (“universe,” literally “all outer space”). Ideas about these creatures were vague and vague. They were sought for patronage, help and protection. Since success or failure in work and hunting depended on the favorable disposition of the vayrgyt, the Chukchi appeased them through sacrifices, which were practiced on a variety of occasions. Walruses, whales, and deer served as the most common objects of worship among the Chukchi. Perhaps the earliest message on this matter has reached us from 1647, compiled by the famous explorer of the northeast of Siberia M. Stadukhin. He says that near the river. The Chukchi live in the Chukchi region (west of the Kolyma River). “And those Chukchi on this side of the Kalyma from their home from that river in the winter move on reindeer to that island one day, and on that island they catch the sea animal walrus and bring to themselves walrus heads with all the teeth, and in their own way they take those walrus heads prayer." 134
Traces of the widespread cult of walruses and whales can be traced to the present day not only on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, but also on the Pacific. I. S. Vdovin was able to observe traces of the cult gathering of walrus heads near Cape Shelagsky, near the villages of Ryrkaipiy (Cape Schmidt), Enurmin (Cape Serdtse-Kamen) and in other places. Thus, this cult was widespread not only among the Chukchi and Eskimos, but also among the Koryaks.
South of Anadyr 135 along the coast of the Bering Sea to the river. Uni, and along the western coast of Kamchatka from the river. Tigil in the south 136 to the northern corner of the Penzhinskaya Bay lived settled Koryaks. Sedentary Koryaks also occupied the northwestern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk up to the river. Oly. 137 “Forts” of sedentary Koryaks were located not only in the lower
134 Additions to historical acts, vol. III, doc. No. 24.
135 Ibid., vol.IV, doc. No. 7.
136 I.I. Ogryzko. Settlement and numbers of Itelmens and Kamchatka Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. “Scientific notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen”, v. 222, L., 1961, pp. 173-174. 137 Additions to historical acts, vol. V, doc. No. 73.
but also on the middle and upper reaches of more or less large rivers of Kamchatka (for example, on the rivers Tigil, Palan, Karaga, Rusanov, etc.) 138. .The entire internal space of the Kamchatka Peninsula from the river. Bolshoi in the south 139 down to the right tributaries of the Anadyr - the Velikaya and Maina rivers, the valleys of the lower and middle reaches of the rivers Penzhina, Gizhiga, Pareni, Yama, Ola, as well as the Taigonos Peninsula were occupied by reindeer Koryaks.
The number of Koryaks in the 17th century. was completely unknown. Even S.P. Krasheninnikov wrote that “it was impossible to obtain genuine news about the Koryak people.” 140 According to the calculations of B. O. Dolgikh, the estimated number of Koryaks by the end of the 17th century. was 10,785 people, 141 and according to the calculations of I. S. Gurvich, there were more Koryaks - about 13 thousand. 142 Thus, the question of the number of Koryaks at the end of the 17th century. requires further study.
The closest contact between Russians and Koryaks began in the 80s of the 17th century. Almost simultaneously, the Russians began advancing from Okhotsk north along the sea coast and from the Anadyr fort south to the Kamchatka side. 143
Like the Chukchi, the Koryaks were divided into sedentary and nomadic. In turn, the settled Koryaks were divided into several territorial groups, differing from one another in language and some elements of culture. “And on Penzhina,” reported Vl. Atlasov, - the Koryaks live... they speak their own special language... And they eat fish and all kinds of animals and seals. And their yurts are made of reindeer and rovduzh... And behind those Koryaks live foreigners, the Lutorians, and the language and everything is similar to the Koryak, and their yurts are made of earth, similar to the Ostyak yurts.”144
Sedentary Koryaks were engaged in fishing, sea hunting and hunting mountain sheep, wild deer and bears. Most of all they were fishermen. As is known, the rivers of Kamchatka, as well as the rivers flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea, were abundant in salmon species. Fishing was the main source of livelihood for the Koryaks. Fish were caught in rivers and lakes at spawning grounds with nets knitted from deer tendons or from threads made from nettles. Basically, yukola was made from fish, which was stored in special structures (booths) on high stilts. Yukola was the main winter food product of sedentary Koryaks.
The further north along the coast of the Kamchatka Isthmus, the more important marine hunting became in the life of the Koryaks. They hunted seals, whales, and, on the Bering Sea coast, walruses.
On land, the Koryaks hunted wild deer, which were found in the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and mountain sheep. They were mined with a bow and arrow, as well as with the help of loops that were installed on animal trails. Brown bears were found everywhere in the territory of the Koryak settlement, which were also the subject of their hunting.
By the time of contact with the Russians, the Koryaks already had developed herding reindeer herding. Herds of some patriarchal communities
138 I. I. Ogryzkov. Settlement and number of Itelmens..., pp. 189-192.
139 Colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31. S.P.
140 S.P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka. M.-L., 1949, p. 726.
141 B. O. Dolgikh. Clan and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century, p. 561.
142 I.S.Gurvich. Ethnic history of the northeast of Siberia. M., 1966, p. 109.
143 M. I. Belov. New data about the services of Vladimir Atlasov and the first Russian campaigns in Kamchatka. “Chronicle of the North”, L.-M., 1957.
144 Colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. 31; S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, page 448.
were numerous. Deer were the private property of individual community members. The Koryaks had a wealth inequality that was strikingly obvious to the first Russian observers.
Reindeer provided the Koryaks not only with food, but also with material for clothing, shoes, and housing; surplus reindeer herding products went to the sedentary Koryaks, in exchange for which the reindeer herders received products from the marine hunting industry (blue, skins and skins of marine mammals). “Everybody wears a dress made of deerskin,” wrote S.P. Krasheninnikov __ in which there is no cancellation from Kamchatka, for the Kamchadals receive deer dress from them, as already announced above.” 145 Reindeer also served as a means of transportation. They were harnessed to cargo and passenger sledges and were ridden only in winter. 146
The tools of labor and hunting of the Koryaks were made of wood, stone and bone. It is interesting that their axes (adze), arrowheads, spears, men's and women's knives (pakul) show almost complete similarity with similar objects of the Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos. The weapons of the Koryaks also had much in common with the weapons of the Chukchi and Eskimos. “Their military weapons consist of bows, arrows and spears, which were previously made from bones and stones... They used to have stone and bone axes and knives, and wooden flints, which they still use more often today,” wrote S. P. Krasheninnikov. 147 Speaking about the Alyutor sedentary Koryaks, V. Atlasov noted: “...they have guns, bows and arrows of bone and stone.” 148
The means of transportation on land for the reindeer Koryaks was reindeer, and the sedentary Koryaks used dogs, which they also harnessed to sledges. As S.P. Krasheninnikov noted: “. . “Sessile Koryaks also have deer, only rare ones and not a lot of them, and they only use them for traveling.” 149 On reindeer harnessed to sledges, the Koryaks entered into battle with the enemy. “The Koryaks go out to fight with reindeer on sledges: one drives, and the other shoots from a bow.” 150 They traveled along the rivers on bats (in the southern areas of settlement), and along the sea - on canoes. The latter were distinguished by their size, especially among the Penzhina Koryaks. “Penzhin foreigners use canoes instead of boats for sea travel,” reported Vl. Atlasov, - sewn from seal skin, 6 fathoms in length, and 1!/2 fathoms across, and in those canoes, 30 and 40 people swim at sea for seal and fat fishing.” 151
The reindeer Koryaks lived in portable dwellings, the frame of which was made of light poles and covered with panels sewn from reindeer skins. Inside such a dwelling, curtains were placed, also sewn from deer skins. There were as many of them as there were families living under one roof. There was a fire burning in the middle of the tent, on which food was being cooked. The canopies were illuminated and heated by grease lamps, in which either bone fat or the fat of sea animals burned. Summer tents were covered with panels of rovduga. 159
Sedentary Koryaks had special winter and summer dwellings. In winter, they lived in half-dugouts, with an entrance hole at the top, which also served as a chimney. Several families of close relatives lived in such half-dugouts. In the summer they settled in cone-shaped
145 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 453.
146 Ibid., 453-454.
147 Ibid., pp. 460, 729.
148 Colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century, p. -26.
149 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 455.
150 Colonial policy of tsarism in Kamchatka and Chukotka in the 18th century on p. 32.
151 Ibid., pp. 32-33.
152 Ibid., p. 31.
booths, which were built on high pillars and covered with grass. Each family had its own booth. These same booths served as warehouses where yukola prepared in the summer was stored in winter.
The Koryaks ate fish, deer, mountain sheep, and marine mammals; they collected pine nuts, berries, and some types of edible roots.
They used clay, birch bark and leather utensils, wove mats, baskets, and bags from grass to store supplies of pine nuts, berries, and roots of edible plants.
The social relations of the Koryaks, apparently, were fundamentally no different from the social relations of the Chukchi. The main social unit of the Koryaks was a large patriarchal family with surviving remnants of the maternal line. Among the reindeer Koryaks, such an economic and social unit was the camp community, which united the closest relatives - the patriarchal family. “In one place there are four or five yurts, but more than one,” noted S.P. Krasheninnikov. 153 Among the sedentary Koryaks, this was a group of relatives (a large patriarchal family), united around the main means of hunting - canoes - a canoe community. Members of such a community lived in one half-dugout. “They had never had leaders before, but whoever was rich in reindeer in that clan was in charge, because all the poor and meager with reindeer live near that relative, and they provide them with food and clothing, and they guard his herd " 154 As can be seen, property inequality based on the ownership of deer among the Koryaks has gone far. “Wives and children have special herds.” 155 They already had the beginnings of patriarchal slavery. The slaves were foreigners. “The Chukotsky and Kamchatka peoples have serfs.” 156
The Koryaks practiced polygamy, especially among the rich. “The rich marry the rich, and the poor marry the poor... They have two or three wives, and keep them in different places, giving them special shepherds and herds.” 157 Exogamous marriage norms no longer existed among the Koryaks, as well as among the Chukchi. “They take wives most from their own family, cousins, aunts and step-mothers, except they do not marry their mothers, their own daughters, their own sisters and stepdaughters.” 158 They worked for a bride for three to five years.
The religious beliefs of the Koryaks were based on animism. They spiritualized natural phenomena. They made sacrifices to the “spirits” of mountains, rivers, seas, etc., in order to evoke benefits on their part in the form of successful hunting, fishing, and prosperity. They also had shamans who, by playing a tambourine, summoned helping spirits and with their help fought evil spirits. 159 Among the sedentary Koryaks there were shamans who were “revered as healers.” However, they “treated” the sick only by playing the tambourine, supposedly “driving away the spirits” of the disease.
At the same time, the Koryaks, like the Chukchi, had many practical skills related to hunting, fishing, and knowledge of local natural conditions and their characteristics. Their homes, clothing, vehicles, tools and weapons were well adapted to the harsh nature and represented very advanced inventions, which only
153 Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, p. 729.
154 Ibid., p. 726.
155 Ibid., p. 731.
156 Ibid., p. 726.
157 Ibid., p. 458.
158 Ibid. 9
159 Ibid., p. 455.
could be done under these conditions. Their amazing ability to rationally use all the products of reindeer husbandry, sea fishing, fishing, and the surrounding sparse vegetation is amazing.
Eskimos
The classic representatives of the Arctic sea hunters' way of life are the Eskimos.
The Eskimos, as we have seen, are the northernmost people in the world who have managed to adapt to the specific living conditions in the high Arctic latitudes. Their history was of interest to generations of scientists primarily because the Eskimos created a unique culture of Arctic hunters and animal hunters, and also because they were one of the last waves of immigrants from Asia to America. This is the only people that inhabits both the Arctic shores of the Old World and the New, American continent. The history of the Eskimos consists of large-scale migrations, during which they mastered not only Alaska, but eventually reached the shores of Greenland, where the Vikings in the 9th century. n. e. We met small "skrelings" wrapped in seal and deer skins.
Traces of the ancient life of the Eskimos can be traced over vast areas along the coast of the Bering Sea and the Bering Strait, along the Arctic coast of the Arctic Ocean to the mouth of the river. Kolyma in the west, along the northern shores of Alaska, the islands of the Canadian Arctic archipelago and on the coast of Greenland.
In the 17th-18th centuries, when the Asian Eskimos came into contact with the Russians, they lived the same life as sea hunters of the Stone Age and basically preserved the culture that had developed over thousands of years. It is called “protohistoric” in Alaska.
The Eskimos lived in semi-underground dwellings. The basis of their economy was hunting for walrus and whale, as well as fishing, gathering and hunting birds and tundra animals.
The hunt for walruses, judging by ethnographic data, began at the end of April and continued until November-December with minor deviations in timing due to ice conditions. In the spring, at the end of April and May, walruses roost on the ice drifting along the coast. The hunters brought the kayaks on special sleds to the edge of the fast ice, lowered them into the water and went out to sea to fish. Noticing an ice floe with walruses lying on it, the hunters silently, so as not to frighten the dormant animals, swam up to it and landed on the ice. Having approached the walruses, the hunters beat the animals with spears equipped with stone or bone tips.
With the disappearance of ice, hunting for walruses continued on the open sea from kayaks using harpoons. A certain lull in hunting occurred in June, when the walruses moved away from the shores. Since August, walrus fishing has picked up again, as at this time the animals again approached the shore.
The whale hunt was carried out from a canoe. The harpooned and weakened animal was finished off with a special lance, trying to hit it directly in the heart. In ancient times, the Eskimos hunted mainly the bowhead whale. An experienced specialist harpooner struck the animal that surfaced near the canoe in the heart with one blow with a lance. Hunting the bowhead whale, despite its enormous size, was relatively safe, since the bowhead whale is less mobile than the smaller gray whale that lives in the waters of the Bering Sea, the hunt for which is fraught with great difficulties. Before finishing off the gray whale, they threw
several harpoons, in which special air bags “puff-puff”, made from whole skinned seal skin, were attached with a line. There were cases when a gray whale, harpooned several times, carrying up to 10 floats “puff-puff”, still left, since it was difficult to approach it with oars for the final finishing blow with a pike.
Hunting for walrus and especially whale required a large team of hunters, organization and specialization of labor of each member of such an association. Ethnographic materials show with sufficient convincing that such a union among the Asian Eskimos was the patrilineal family.
Remnants of primitive communal patriarchal-tribal relations, judging by ethnographic data, were preserved among the Eskimos until the beginning of the 20th century. 160 The clan community consisted of a number of small families. The most important feature of the clan was exogamy. Within one clan, marriage between its members had previously been categorically prohibited. An Eskimo legend tells that a young man who entered into a marriage relationship with his cousin, the daughter of his father's younger brother, was killed by his father.
The predominant form of marriage was marriage with labor for the bride. There have been cases of concluding a marriage contract between parents of young children, and sometimes even before their birth. Even in the recent past, there was a custom of wife exchange, as well as polygamy. There were cases when a person from another clan, who married and remained in his wife’s clan, was adopted by the clan, and he was called “ignykak” - “adopted son”, from the word “ignyk” - son. If an orphan child from the same clan was adopted by a member of the clan, then he was called “anlisyagak” - “adopted son, pupil.” At the head of the family at the beginning of the 20th century. stood the tribal elder - nunalikhtak. It was usually an old man or an older man. His responsibility was to regulate the social and industrial life of the clan. He opened and closed the fishing season, determined the timing of trips for the purpose of exchange, and supervised the performance of festive ceremonies. Together with the elders of his clan and the clan elders of other clans, he sorted out the quarrels and litigations of his fellow villagers. The duties of a clan elder were not elective - they passed along the male line, usually from father to son. Often, the clan elder of one of the most powerful and respected clans presided over the entire village. Each clan occupied its own strictly defined territory in the village, where their homes were located. In the village Sireniki still preserves the ruins of two huge nynlyu (dugouts), in which at the end of the 18th century. lived the Silyakshagmit and Syagogmit clans. According to legends, seven canoe artels from the now-lyu of the Silyakshagmit clan went out to sea to fish, and eight canoe-artels from the now-lyu of the Syagogmit clan. Each kayak team had 12 hunters. According to informants, from 250 to 400 people lived in each dugout. In addition, the places where there were drying sheds with canoes and pits for storing meat were strictly delimited between clans. It should be noted that the hunting territory of all clans in all villages was common. On the basis of tribal relations, the main production unit was formed - the canoe artel. Each clan had one, two, three or more canoe artels, depending on the size of the clan. Usually a canoe artel consisted of 12 people. Except for hunting kayaks, every genus
160 D.A. Sergeev Remnants of the paternal lineage among the Asian Eskimos. "Soviet ethnography", 1962, No. 6, pp. 35-42
had a large transport canoe for 40 oarsmen or more for long trips for trade and military purposes.
The distribution of the spoils of the sea hunting industry was made equally among all members of the clan. The children of a deceased member of the clan were given the same amount of meat, fat, and skins as the rest of the clan. Each clan had its own special holidays and family traditions. There is, for example, a legend that in Naukan, a hunter from the Nunagmit clan’s wife gave birth to a baby whale. When the baby whale became an adult, he was released into the sea, and every year he brought sea animals to the shore, where hunters from the Nunagmit clan lived. This aroused the anger of the hunters from the Mamrokhpagmit clan, and they killed the whale. The legend reflects the enmity that once existed between the Nunagmit and Mamrokhpagmit clans. Later this hostility ceased.
The Imtugmit clan had a particularly complex holiday ritual with various spells, songs, dances, and observance of many prohibitions at the holiday in honor of the killed bowhead whale, which was held in December. At the end of the holiday, the team that caught the whale had its hair cut in a special way, and only after the collective haircut did the hunters begin a common meal, a meal of friendship. This was followed by a cleansing ritual. Until the completion of these rituals, throughout the entire holiday, hunters of the clan were forbidden not only to go out hunting, but even to appear on the shore.
During the holiday, women lit the ancestral fire in a special festive fatbox. Possible successes and failures in the upcoming fishery were determined by the brightness and evenness of the flame. The transfer of fire from one kind to another was strictly prohibited.
It was also forbidden to carry hot food cooked on the ancestral fire from dwelling to dwelling. A similar ban existed in the fishery: here, during a whale hunt, it was forbidden to transfer weapons, oars, or any objects from a canoe of one kind to a canoe of another kind.
Until recently, the Asian Eskimos also maintained family cemeteries. So, above the village. There is a cemetery on the Naukan hill, where each clan had its own specific burial place. The most convenient places for burials were occupied by clans who were considered aborigines of this village.
In the 17th century The first meeting of the Eskimos with the Russians took place.
The Nivkhs were very close to the sedentary peoples of the northeast in their way of life. Their main occupations were fishing, sea hunting and hunting. They were engaged in the manufacture of clothing from fish skins and animal skins, and iron processing (manufacturing hunting and fishing tools, utensils, and weapons). They lived in “ulus” villages, in winter - in dugouts, in summer - in “cages” on stilts. We rode dogs. They were divided into patriarchal clans and had elected elders.
Kamchadal-Itelmen
S.P. Krasheninnikov pointed out that the words “Kamchatka”, “Kamchadal” passed to the Russians through the Koryaks, and the Kamchadals themselves called themselves Itelmens. According to V. Atlasov, in the last years of the 17th century. The Kamchadals occupied all of Kamchatka from Tigil and Uka in the north to the river. Golygina in the south. According to Atlasov, 25 thousand Kamchadals lived in the river valley alone. Kamchatka. But this is clearly an exaggerated figure. From conversations with old Kamchadals, from traditions and legends, it turns out that there used to be more villages in Kamchatka, but the villages themselves were much smaller: two to four yurts in each.
V. Atlasov was the first to report that “their winter yurts are earthen, and their summer yurts are on pillars, three fathoms high from the ground, paved with boards and covered with spruce bark, and people go to those yurts by stairs.”10 Most of the buildings in the Kamchadal village were outbuildings, sheds for drying fish. Sometimes there were up to 20 or even more booths next to one large yurt. During the short summer, the Kamchadals lived, or rather spent the night, in booths under bark or grass roofs on decks made of poles covered with grass.
Already from the first reports of Atlasov’s detachment, it became known that the Kamchadals “have baleen bows, whale bows, stone and bone arrows, and iron is not native to them,” that “the Kamchadals cut the tails of sables and mix them into clay and make pots so that the clay with wool knitted, and from others they sew earmuffs.” 162
“When fighting, the Kamchadals threw stones from behind the fortifications with slings, and threw large stones directly from the forts with their hands, fought with sticks and sharpened stakes... And in winter the Kamchadals go out to fight on skis. .., and in the summer they go to battle on foot, naked, and others in clothes.” 163
Atlasov found Kamchadals wearing clothes made from the skins of sables, foxes and deer, trimmed with dog fur. Women's home dress was khonbas; khonbas were worn from the feet. Men at home and in the summer in the fields limited themselves to only a robe loincloth. In rainy weather they wore a cape woven from grass in the form of a burka.
The Kamchadals borrowed outerwear and footwear from the Koryaks: a thick kukhlyanka, a hat, trousers and a bag made of reindeer fur and kamus - skins from the legs of a deer. On the road in winter, a double fur parka was worn over the kukhlyanka. Before putting on the torbaza - skhun, fur stockings (pamyans) were pulled on the legs with the fur facing the leg. Winter fishing shoes among the Kamchadals were made of fish skin, and the feet were wrapped with tonshich - mint grass. Tonšić was rolled up into an insole and placed in a torbaza for warmth. Under Krasheninnikov, the best women's headdress was a wig made of grass. Some women sewed their hair into a wig.
The main food of the Kamchadals during Krasheninnikov’s time was dried fish - yukola (noz) from fish of the salmon family: chinook salmon, chum salmon, red salmon, pink salmon and coho salmon. In early spring, char was caught in the rivers. Late autumn coho salmon were most often frozen and preserved for the winter. Some of the fish were smoked. The head with the vertebral bone and entrails was separated from the fish and dried separately for the dogs. For dogs, fish was stored in pits for the winter (“sour fish”).
During fishing trips, fish, cleared of scales and intestines, were placed between two sticks of the talnik, tied with the bast of the talnik and placed over the fire on four support sticks. Finely chopped nettle leaves were added to the fish. The caviar was dried in the sun and always eaten with birch and willow bark, planed finely, like noodles. Caviar was stored for future use in thick hollow grass stems - “pipes” and dried. They believed that it was better to store it in this form and take it with you when hunting.
A prominent place in the food of the Kamchadal-Itelmens was occupied by the meat and fat of bears, sheep and pinnipeds: seals, akiba, sea lion and sealed seals. They also hunted deer in the tundra. The meat was fried and boiled; consumed raw
161 N. Ogloblin. Two “skasks” Vl. Atlasov about the discovery of Kamchatka. “Readings of social history and Russian antiquities”, book. 3, dept. 1, 1891, pp. 14.-\; Vl. Atlasov was the first to visit Kamchatka in 1697-1699. and gave a description of the newly discovered country.
162 Central State Archive of Ancient Acts. Siberian Order, stlb. 1422, pp. 1-12.
163 N. O g l o b l i n. Two "fairy tales" by Atlasov. . ., page 14. 422
Only the kidneys, liver, brains and flippers of animals were found. Even Ditmar in the middle of the 19th century. everywhere I observed the archaic method of preparing mountain sheep meat in holes dug in the ground; a fire was made in a pit and a whole carcass of a skinned mountain sheep was placed in a hot pit with ashes, first wrapped in herbs (lamb, nettle), the carcass was covered with earth on top, and it was stewed in its own juice.
Steller called the Itelmens “omnivorous animals who do not even disdain fly agarics and, on the other hand, have colossal knowledge in the field of botany... They usually know all the native plants both by their names and by their properties.”
Krasheninnikov, speaking about the food of the Itelmens, said that they eat roots, fish and sea animals. It is no coincidence that he put plant food in first place, since he saw that with plant food “the lack of bread, almost like fish, is rewarded.” 164
In early spring, as soon as the snow melted, they collected wild garlic - wild onions - in unlimited quantities. At the end of summer and autumn, tubers of kemchigi, saran, oatmeal, stems of fireweed, shelomaynik, lamb, and “sweet grass” were prepared for future use and eaten fresh and boiled. They ate and stored shiksha berries for future use, freezing them; They ate honeysuckle, blueberries, cloudberries and lingonberries, and here and there bird cherry.
There was a nut trade, women were engaged in it, going for a while into the cedar forests; they were storing nuts for the winter. Plant tubers were most often selected from store nests that housekeeper mice made in the ground for the winter. Women dug them out of the ground with special hooks - goat hooks. In general, the collection and preparation of plant food for future use lay on the shoulders of the woman.
The Itelmens ate eggs of birds - seagulls, ducks, geese. They collected 1000 eggs or more per household and stored them for the winter.
Nettles were used to twist threads that were used to sew clothes and shoes, and they were also used to knit nets. Ropes were made from black alder bast. Before the arrival of the Russians, the Kamchadal-Itelmen met with Koryak reindeer herders roaming the mountains of the peninsula, and in exchange for seal skins they received from them reindeer meat, winter clothing made from reindeer fur, shoes, hats and mittens. The Koryaks borrowed the dog sled from them. There were no mixed marriages with the Koryaks. Kamchadals, who lived south of the river. Ichi, met with the Kuriles and entered into marriage with them. Through the Kurils they received pottery, even Japanese, and fabrics. But these connections were poorly established, as storms and strong sea waves in the straits separating Cape Lopatka from the Kuril Islands interfered. And although the language of the Kurils was very different from Itelmen, these peoples understood each other.
Krasheninnikov noted that they waged wars “not for honor or glory or to expand the borders of their possessions, since they do not know wealth, glory and honor, but to avenge insults, because of food supplies, but most of all for the girls they could to take wives with less difficulty than voluntarily, because they got wives very dearly.”1b5 There were never quarrels over property or housing, because there was enough land, water, plants and animals for everyone.
Before the arrival of the Russians, the Itelmens lived by birth. Usually, representatives of one genus lived in the basin of one river or large tributary. If a family became crowded in one village, then one or two families moved up or down the river and founded a new village. On the-
164 S. P. Krasheninnikov. Description of the land of Kamchatka, page 207.
165 Ibid., p. 366.
they had no authority over themselves, “no one could command anyone.” The first information about the structure of the social life of the Kamchadals was reported by the same V. Atlasov in the second “skask”. The Kamchadals, he wrote, strengthen their forts because “clan with clan often enter into battle; that they didn’t pay yasak anywhere, they don’t have great powers over them, only whoever is richer in their family is revered more. And generation after generation goes to war and fights... And they have wives according to their own needs - one and two, three and four.” The marriage was exogamous. The position of women in the Kamchadal family was privileged: fights and battles did not start in the presence of women. In addition to fishing and hunting, men were engaged in building houses, cooking, rowing and walking on boats along rivers with poles. The woman took part in processing fish, gathering, and worked around the house: sewing, making threads for nets.
Krasheninnikov and Steller, noting the polytheism of the Itelmens, reported that the Kamchadals called the god Dussheykhtich. In honor of him, they erected a pillar on the plains, tied it with tonshich, and, when passing by, they always threw pieces of food as a sacrifice to him. Near such a “holy” place they did not pick berries and did not kill any animals or birds. The god of the sea was represented in the form of a fish bird and was called Mitg. The owner of all animals was considered Pilya-chucha, or Bilyukai, who supposedly lived on the clouds with kamuls and produced thunder, lightning, and rain.
Steller reported that the Kamchadals recognized the evil spirit Kanna. A very old alder tree near the Nizhne-Kamchatsky fort was considered his home. “The Kamchadals shot at her every year, which is why she is covered with arrows from Iznata-Kan.” Gaech was considered the god of the afterlife, the underworld. The earthquake was caused by Tuil when his dog Kozey shook off the snow.
The legends about Kutkha reveal the story of the creation of the world. The creator of the earth, Kutha, first lived in heaven, then moved to earth, where he gave birth to a son and daughter from his wife. The children grew up, got married and gave birth to a son and daughter, and so Kamchatka was gradually populated. Kutha, his wife and children wore a dress made of leaves, ate birch and tall bark, there were no animals at that time, and they had not yet learned to fish. Kutha invented a boat, and Kutha's second son invented a way to knit nettle nets and catch fish, he also created animals and began to sew warm fur clothes.
The Kamchadals “felt neither fear, nor respect, nor love for the creator and believed that everything on earth could have been arranged much better, that happiness or misfortune does not come from God, but everything depends on man; They believed that in life on earth everything was gradually getting worse and there was less of everything.” 166
The Kamchadals had a unique concept of good and bad: everything that a person needs and likes is virtuous; everything that you don’t like and scares away is harmful. The Kamchadals considered boredom and melancholy to be the greatest sin and even preferred death to them. A mortal sin for them was rescuing those who were drowning or covered in snow, or climbing volcanoes. Cursing over sour fish, boiling the meat of various animals and fish in one cauldron, scraping snow from shoes with a knife was also considered a sin.
Holidays and religious ceremonies were celebrated to ensure hunting and fishing - whale and bear holidays. Their greatest holiday was autumn holiday, which ended with “purification” - passing through hoops made of birch twigs.
The discrepancy in the nomenclature of mythological creatures and the great difference in the vocabulary of different groups of Kamchadals show that the Kamchadals - in
166 Ibid., p. 410.
Apparently, a conglomerate of tribes and peoples who came to Kamchatka from different directions and at different times. A rapprochement between individual groups of nationalities has already occurred in Kamchatka due to its isolated position among the vast maritime spaces.
At the very edge of the world, on the road from Asia to America, lived the Aleuts - tribes related in language to the Eskimos.
Since ancient times, the Aleuts have lived on the Alaska Peninsula and on the Aleutian Islands. When Vitus Bering discovered the Commander Islands in 1741, they were uninhabited. Nevertheless, the Aleuts have their own name for the Commander Islands - Tanamas, which means “Our Land”. The Aleuts are an island people who lived in close contact with the sea and received from it everything they needed for life. The main occupation of the Aleuts was sea hunting, which supplied them with food and clothing. In the intense struggle for existence in harsh natural conditions, the Aleuts developed resilience, courage, courage and agility, and the ability to withstand the elements in any storm. They were famous as brave, fearless sailors. Endurance, endurance and patience are the main traits of their character.
I. E. Veniaminov assumed that “the population of the Aleuts in the best times extended to 25,000 people,” others believe that there were only 12-15 thousand Aleuts.
The Aleuts built their villages on the shores of the islands. The villages, as a rule, were small - five to eight yurts. On large islands there were several villages. The Aleuts had winter and summer dwellings that were sharply different from each other. The winter underground dwelling - ulyagamah - was always common and large. The buildings were oriented according to the direction of the winds, blowing mainly from east to west. Ulyagamakh looked like a barn, divided into chambers for each family. Usually related families lived in such a dwelling. Some families made special closets inside the wall where they placed their children or stored their property and food. In the summer, Aleut families went to live in small barracks - hives, which served to store fishing tools and household utensils. I. E. Veniaminov noted at one time that “all the wealth of the Aleut consisted of a yurt, a kayak, a park and a kamleik.”
The most necessary items in the life of the Aleuts were kayaks and harpoons. Previously, they had a large 12-oar kayak (ulukhtakh) for collective hunting in the sea with a double leather covering, which took 6-8-12 sea lion skins, and a kayak (ekyakh) with unparalleled seaworthiness with one hatch, which usually hunter and went hunting at sea. Kayaks with two hatches were used to teach boys sea hunting; kayaks with three hatches are a later invention. The frames for the kayaks were made by men, and the skins for them were cut and sewn collectively by women.
When preparing to go hunting at sea, the Aleuts wore a kamleika with a hood, sewn from sea lion intestines, over a warm parka made from bird skins. From one intestine of a large sea lion came two camleys for adults. In inclement weather, over the Steller's kamleika they wore a second kamleika, made from the skin of seals, and the same trousers. On their feet they wore torbazas made from the skin of various animals: the tops were made of seal skin, the front was made of seal skin, and the soles were made of sea lion skin. A wooden hat with an elongated beak-shaped front part was put on the head to protect against wind and splashes. Sitting in a kayak in such a suit, the hunter covered himself under the arms with a tight-fitting belt (together) and
boldly went to sea in rain, wind and even storms. If the kayak with the hunter capsized, he put it back in place with a swing of his two-bladed oar, and not a single drop of water leaked through either the sleeves of the kamleika or the hood. The hunter could stand up to his full height in the kayak if necessary.
Parkas, that is, warm and light fur coats without a slit in the front, were made by Aleut women from the skins of puffin birds. Eagle cradles with plucked feathers, but with a dense down covering. The clothes and hat, made from bird skins, were very light and warm.
Water was carried and kept at home not in buckets, but in sea lion bladders; To store the fat of sea animals and yukola, dried fish, they also used the bladders and stomachs of seals, seals and sea lions. The stomach - sankhukh - of a small sea lion holds 50-60 pieces of yukola, and the sankhukh of a large sea lion, with skillful placement, contained 500-600 pieces. Having finished laying the yukola, the air was sucked out of the sankhukh and the neck was tightly tied with a strap. In such a vessel, yukola was preserved and did not spoil for a whole year or longer; Sankhuh protected her from dust, flies, mold and other dirt.
The Aleuts were famous for their exceptional ability to weave sea grass into mats for lining earthen floors in their homes, baskets, bags for household needs and small bags decorated with ornaments from colored grass, and later from garus. Bone was cut for harpoon tips for hunting sea animals and waterfowl.
The Aleuts ate mainly the meat and fat of sea animals (seal, sea lion, seal, walrus), fish (fresh, smoked and dried - yukola), bird meat and eggs of ducks, geese, seagulls, loons, hatchets, and moss. Each household stored two to four barrels of eggs for the winter. The “caviar” of sea urchins, mollusks, seaweed, and seaweed, which are found in abundance off the coast of the Commander Islands, were widely consumed as food. From early spring until frost, they collected wild plants and ate them, mainly wild garlic, onions, and saran. Using a curved knife, they dug out bulbs of saran and other edible plants from the ground, cleared them of the soil, and dried them on mats and bedding in the sun and wind. Before boiling, the tubers and onions were thoroughly washed in several waters and eaten like potatoes. For the winter, they stocked several barrels of boiled and crushed saran, tightly compacted in barrels, poured seal fat on top and covered with berries, mainly shiksha. In early spring, they collected the roots of the hagelis grass from the hills, steamed them, which made them tasty and sweet. Hagelis was eaten with sour seal or sea lion fat. They collected and stored for future use berries (honeysuckle, crowberry, rowan) and mushrooms - porcini, aspen, solyanka (unlike other peoples of the north).
Aleutian society was divided into three class groups, as I. E. Veniaminov wrote: honorable, commoners and slaves. Only honorable people had the right to own slaves (kalgas); commoners very rarely owned slaves. Kalga could not have his own property: everything he acquired belonged to his owner. The price of a kalga was as follows: “... for a kayak and a good parka they gave a pair of kalgas, that is, a husband and a wife; for a stone knife, for a pair of pukleys (mats) and for a beaver parka they gave one slave each." 167 Kalgas appeared as a result of constant internecine wars. These were prisoners of war Aleuts, Indians, Eskimos. The children of Kalgas also became Kalgas and were inherited from generation to generation Every Aleut village certainly consisted of relatives.
The eldest in the clan (tukkuh) had power over everyone, but when discussing
167 I.E. Veniaminov. Notes on the islands of the Unalaska department, part I. St. Petersburg, 1840, p. 165.
On the most important issues, the foreman convened a court of all honorary members of the clan and the elderly. Having presented the case, he found out the general opinion, which was considered mandatory for making a final decision. In rare cases, the Aleuts used the death penalty. The most serious and incorrigible criminals were considered to be a murderer, a malicious talker, and a betrayer of public secrets. These crimes were punishable by death.
From these legal norms of the Aleuts it is clear how strong the military tension was, the danger of constant internecine wars and clashes with their neighbors - the Eskimos and Indians, during which almost the entire male population was destroyed.
Women in Aleut society occupied an honorable position because they had a matriarchy, the remnants of which have survived to this day. Girls were never forced into marriage, they independently chose their husbands. If the marriage was unsuccessful, the woman was free to leave. Boys were the main labor force around the house. Women ran the household, tanned animal skins, sewed clothes, shoes, utensils, obtained plant food, and made supplies for the winter. Men bore all the burdens of sea hunting, hunting, fishing, and made canoes; the construction of yurts was also their business.
The Aleuts had a rich mythology and colorful, unique art.
Another island chain of the Pacific Ocean, the Kuril chain, has long been inhabited by the Ainu.
Conclusion
Now we can take a look at the “History of Siberia” within the framework of our volume at one glance.
All the documentary material summarized in the volume clearly refutes racist views on world history, on the relationship between and the place of “small” and “big” peoples in it.
The peoples of Siberia made an original contribution to world culture. Their history is an inseparable and essential part of the history of the Soviet people, and with it the world history of mankind. It begins with human exploration of the space between the Urals and the Pacific Ocean. The initial penetration of man into Northern Asia occurred, perhaps, much earlier than is commonly thought, long before the last, Sartan, glaciation. 20-25 thousand years ago on the shores. Angara, Yenisei, Selenga and Lena already had communities of Paleolithic hunters who obtained their food by hunting mammoths, rhinoceroses and reindeer. At the same time, Paleolithic people penetrated here not from any one center, but from various regions of Europe and Asia, primarily from the periglacial zone of Europe, as well as from Central Asia and, probably, from Central Asia - Mongolia.
The development of new areas in the depths of Asia was at the same time the process of the emergence of new centers of culture, including art. This is evidenced by remarkable examples of essentially realistic artistic creativity of mammoth hunters, found first at the Military Hospital in Irkutsk, and then in Malta and Bureti, the same mainly as in the Dordogne, in Moravia, on the Don in Kostenki. or in Mezin in Ukraine.
The culture of the Paleolithic tribes of Siberia, as it finally developed towards the end of the Ice Age, reveals amazing STABILITY. Here there was no such a sharp change as there was in the “microlithic revolution” in the West. Bypassing it, the ancient tribes of Siberia entered a new, Neolithic era of their history. This can be explained, one must think, on the one hand, by the stability of the ethnic composition of the local population over thousands of years, and on the other hand, by the fact that even in the depths of the Paleolithic and especially at that stage, which can be called the Siberian Mesolithic or, with the same right, the Epipaleolithic, foundations for further progress.
At this time, liner guns appeared, and then harpoons. The first domestic animal in history, the dog, was also domesticated early.
In Siberia, 4-5 thousand years ago, the descendants of Paleolithic people, the Neolithic people, were still overwhelmingly at the level of the ancient hunting-gathering and fishing economy. However, this economy could no longer be called primitive. Hunters in the Baikal region, for example, have the world's first Serov bow
enhanced or even complex type. They create a rich set of tools that serve the needs of their hunting industry. They developed an original type of light, swinging clothing and must have had birch bark boats and skis. Realistic art, animalistic at its core, is also developing. In a word, a unique ethnographic complex of the culture of foot hunters of the taiga is emerging, determined by human life in new landscape conditions: the open spaces of the steppes and tundras of the Ice Age have now been replaced by the taiga, the boundless green sea. At the same time, no less developed and specialized cultures of Far Eastern fishermen and sea hunters are emerging, and in Primorye and the Middle Amur - also farmers - representatives of a fundamentally new production economy.
Against the background of this progressive development in the field of material culture and economy, no less important events are taking place in another sphere of the historical process - ethnic. To the west of the Urals and up to the Yenisei, a group of Neolithic monuments appears as an integral massif, which are characterized by such features as pitted and streamed patterns on vessels and the image of a bird (duck) in art. To the east of the Yenisei in Eastern Siberia, unique monuments of the Baikal Neolithic culture and other related cultures of taiga hunters are widespread. Third Big world Neolithic tribes begins in the upper reaches of the Amur and can be called Far Eastern, or Pacific. Within each such area, one can trace smaller local units, which are often interlayered and overlap each other in a mosaic manner. Behind the relationships between groups of Neolithic monuments - archaeological cultures, even more complex relationships between specific ethnic formations can be traced.
Between the Urals and Yenisei the process of formation of the Ugro-Samoyed ethnic community unfolded. In the East Siberian taiga and the upper reaches of the Amur, that ethnocultural complex arose that was preserved until recently among the northern Tungus and their counterparts in culture (but not in language) - the Yukaghirs. On the Amur and in Primorye there lived groups of tribes, the culture of which, as evidenced by archeology and ethnography, survived remnantly among the Amur tribes of the 18th-19th centuries. - Nivkhs, Ulchis and Nanais. Among the Itelmens and settled Koryaks, as well as among the Eskimos, the ancient Neolithic culture lived steadily and dominated until contact with Europeans.
The Neolithic era was, therefore, a decisive ethnohistorical boundary in the past of the peoples of Siberia and the Far East, the period of the initial formation of those ethnic groups and cultures that one way or another have reached our time and are in the full sense of the word aboriginal - the initial basis for the further development of Siberian nationalities.
Subsequently, in the Bronze Age and in the early Iron Age, when stone in technology was replaced by metal, new great changes took place in the economy of a number of Siberian tribes, primarily those of them who inhabited the fertile Minusinsk basin, Tuva, the steppes of Western Siberia and the steppe regions Transbaikalia. Already in the 2nd millennium BC. e. The Andronovo tribes developed a complex cattle-breeding and agricultural economy, the classic example of which later became in the 1st millennium BC. e. way of life of the Tagar tribes in the Minusinsk region. Then, in the steppes of Eurasia and Altai, pastoralists and horse nomads spread with their felt yurts, “animal” style and the first epic poems, with a predatory warlike aristocracy at their head. The movements of nomadic tribes and their social system, the ever-increasing needs of the steppe aristocracy for luxury contributed to a sharp expansion of political
cultural, economic and cultural ties with other countries, including the Scythians-Sakas and ancient civilizations of the classical East. At the same time, the expansion of the steppe people, predominantly Iranian in language and culture, began in the areas occupied by the carriers of the ancient hunting and fishing culture. This is how, in particular, the surprisingly “hybrid” art of Ust-Polui culture arises.
If at first these cultural and political ties were oriented mainly to the West, then at the end of the 1st millennium BC. e. significant changes are taking place. A powerful tribal association of the Huns emerges in the steppes of Central Asia. The expansion of the Huns to the west is unfolding. 1st millennium AD e. The leading role in the steppes passes to the Turks. You are beginning a new, Turkic, period in the history of Central Asia and throughout the “steppe belt” of Eurasia. The first steppe empires and the first nomadic states took shape - the Turkic Khaganates, in which new, fundamentally feudal social relations occupied a decisive place. The reflection of these events is found in Siberia everywhere where the steppe people could roam with their herds - from Khingan and Korea to the Urals.
At the same time, the first states of the Far Eastern tribes emerged. In Manchuria, in Primorye and partly on the Amur, first the states of Bohai and the Khitan Liao Empire appeared, and then the even more powerful Golden Empire of the Jurchens (Jin). These states were created at the same time as Kievan Rus, in the 11th-13th centuries, by the Tungusic (Bohai and Jin) and Mongolian peoples (Liao). The socio-political evolution and economy of the Far Eastern tribes reach their highest point at this stage.
But everything was interrupted by new events of a catastrophic scale, which left their mark for a long time not only in the history of Siberia, but also in world history. In the steppes along Onon and Kerulen, Mongol tribes gather under the banners of Genghis Khan. The conquering Mongols rush first against their eternal enemy - the Jurchens, and then against China. The Mongol conquest destroyed the Jurchen state and culture. After a stubborn struggle, many East Siberian tribes, starting with the “forest Mongols,” as well as the steppe nomads of Western Siberia, came under the rule of the Mongol conquerors for a long time.
Subsequently, a new aggression began from the depths of Asia by the Manchu feudal lords, who created in the 17th-18th centuries. its as powerful as it is warlike state. The Manchus conquered China and Mongolia for 300 years. They imposed their Asian order in the countries they captured, including Mongolia, neighboring Siberia, and brutally enslaved the conquered peoples.
Their policies contributed to deepening stagnation in the development of productive forces among those peoples who were not part of the direct rule of the Manchus. This stagnation in the Far East and Manchuria was caused first by the heavy blow that came with the invasion of the Mongols and the death of the Jurchen state. The emergence of the Manchu Empire did not contribute to the progressive development of even the homeland of the Qing dynasty, Manchuria. It served only as a source from which the Manchu feudal lords drew human and manna reserves for new conquests. Primorye and the Amur region, which did not belong to China and the Manchus, generally remained aloof from everything that happened outside their borders: the old primitive communal orders and ancient forms of economy that had developed over centuries were still preserved there.
The remaining areas of Siberia were acutely affected by the negative influence of harsh natural conditions. Having reached a certain level
In the development of productive forces, the population of the taiga and tundra has exhausted its capabilities. It could no longer go beyond hunting and fishing, relying only on its own strength and resources, without progressive incentives, without outside support. Here, natural economy reigned supreme everywhere, and archaic social relations existed that did not rise to the level of the primitive community. At best, there was an interweaving of the primitive communal system with elements of feudalism. Therefore, the circumstance that the aggression of the Manchu feudal lords collided with the powerful counter force of the Russian centralized state and choked on its borders, which stretched already in the 17th century, was of decisive importance for the further history of Siberia. to the Pacific Ocean.
The inclusion of Siberia into Russia had its own deep reasons and corresponded to a historical need. As V.I. Lenin wrote, “Russia geographically, economically and historically belongs not only to Europe, but also to Asia.”1 The entire history of Siberia, starting from the Paleolithic, testifies to the close connection between Siberia and the spaces lying to the west of the Urals , which connected more than separated the peoples of Eastern Europe and Asia. Such contacts begin already in those distant times when mammoth hunters begin to develop the northern deserts freed from ice. They continue later, when ethnic communities of Finnish, Samoyed and Ugric tribes are formed on both sides of the Urals. Then the tribes related to the Scythians of the Black Sea region and the Sakas of the Pamirs and their cultures spread all the way to the depths of Central Asia. Over time, a Sogdian colony settled on the banks of the Angara, and Turkic tribes, according to the chronicle, “acted heroically” from the Danube to the river. Yellow.
During the Mongol Empire, the Russian lands experienced a common fate with Siberia and at the same time became a barrier on the path of the conquerors who threatened the rest of the world.
300 years ago, this barrier was pushed east to the banks of the Amur and the Sayan Range, this time against new contenders for dominance in Asia - the Manchu Qing dynasty. And then the peoples of Siberia will forever, forever unite within one powerful state with the Russian people and other peoples of our Motherland. This was for them a new path to the future, complex and contradictory, but generally, from the point of view of the general historical perspective, certainly progressive. Having become part of the Russian state, the peoples of Siberia throughout its entire territory fell under the rule of tsarism. But at the same time, they came into direct contact with the Russian people, joined advanced civilization, the high culture of the Russian people, and found in it a powerful incentive for their further development. Their joint struggle for a better future began.
1 V. I. Leni, Complete. collection soch., vol. 30, p. 326.
Name index 1
Aan Alakhchin hotun 394
Aan Darkhan-toyon (Khatan Timieriye)
Abaoji Yelu 315, 316
Abd-ar-Rashid 291
Abramov N. A. 355 Abramova 3. A. 11. 31, 49, 71
Abu Dulef 300, 301
Abulgazi 366
Abu-l-Khaira Khoja Muhammad 364, 365
Aguda 326-328, 330-333, 336-338
Agunay 324
Adrianov A.V. 18, 25, 190
Ayysyt-toyon 394
Ayyy-toyon see Yuryung Ayyy-toyon
Aksenov M.P. 11, 31, 80
Alasun 404
Aldier 384
Alexander the Great 13
Alekseev V.P. 117, 166, 170, 253
Alekseev M.P. 13, 28, 369
Alekseev S. 414
Alihuman 327
Alpysbaev X. 71
Altyn Khans 376
Ambaghyan 322, 324
Anahuan 270
Anderson I. 184
Andreev A.I. 5, 14, 15
Andreev G.I. 33, 262
Andreev S. 351
Andreeva Zh. V. 11, 33, 261, 264
Andrievich V.K. 6
Anisimov A. F. 26, 27
Anuchin D. N. 19
An Lu-shan 284
Aolo (Zuyuan) 335, 342
Aristov N. Ya. 19
Arsaan Duolai 393 Arsenyev V.K. 22 Arutyunov S.A. 33 Asada 7
Asu 326, 327, 332
Asimen 329
Atlasov V.V. 416, 417, 421, 422, 424
Attila 303
Auerbach N.K. 25, 26, 63, 69 Akhachu 405
Ahien-shad see Ashina
Ashina (Akhien-shad) 267, 269
Ashkenei 363
Bagauddin 19
Badzhey 387, 390
Baz-Kagan 292
Bai Bayanai 389, 394
Bakai N. 393
Baladata 404
Banzarov D. 380
Baoholi 324, 325
Barberini R. 369
Bars-run 302
Bartold V.V. 27, 291, 293, 296, 297,
300, 302, 373, 377, 396
Basandai 363
Batu 364, 365
Bakhrushin S.V. 5, 28, 358, 377
Bayakshin 400
Bekbulat 366, 371, 372
Belov M. I. 416
Belyavsky F. 235
Berg L. S. 73
Beregovaya N.A. 44, 351
Bering V. 425
Bernshtam A. N. 32, 249, 388
Berro S. 370
Billingshausen F. F. 16
Bilge Kagan see Mogilyan
Bilyukai see Pilyachuch
Bichurin N. Ya. (Iakinf) 17, 18, 242-252 255, 256, 265-267, 278 279, 281, 290, 291, 300-302, 314, 320, 245, 251 270, 272, 298, 299 ,
Bogdanov M. N. 21, 28
Bogoraz-Tan (Bogoraz V. G. Tan-Bogoraz)
23, 26, 27, 54, 95, 350.
Borowl 384
Boyarshinova 3. Ya. 11, 30
Brunel O. 370
Buddha 290, 372-374
Bumyn Kagan 291
Busse F. F. 21, 142
The index includes the names of some clans, tribes and dynasties.
Bushey A. 20
Buyan-biy 365
Biela 328, 365
Bert-hara 390
Waben 334
Wagner L. 370
Vadai 327, 329, 331
Vadetskaya E. B. 11, 165
Vainstein S.I. 11, 32, 227, 253, 286
Valiben 325
Valu 329, 331, 342
Vangenheim E. A. 11.61
Wang Hui 406
Wang Zhao-zhou 406
Wanyan 324-326,
Wanyan Xiyin 333
Vasai 329, 331
Vasilevich G. M. 11, 27, 32, 206, 400, 401
Vasiliev V. P. 22, 320, 335, 340
Vasilievsky R. S. 11, 33
Vdovin I. S. 11, 33, 414, 415
Velyaminov-Zernov V.V. 19
Veniaminov I. E. 17, 425,
Verbov G. D. 26, 27, 29
Viktorova L.L. 11, 251
Vitashevsky N. A. 23
Witzen N. 5, 14
Vitkovsky N. I. 20
Vladimirtsov B. Ya. 27, 383
Vorobyov M. V. 33
Wrangel F. P. 409, 410
Wei 266, 269, 270, 279
Wei Wang 337
Weiliu 260
Weijun 316
Gavrilov Vasily Brazhnik 369
Gavrilov F. 410
Gaozhenyi 315
Gaohou 250
Gaozu 250, 311
Gaotside 315, 317
Gao Yun-chan 341
Gardizi 274 291
Garrut V. E. 38
Gedenstrom M. 16, 17
Georgi I. I. 16
Gerasimov M. M. 25, 44, 46, 56
Herodotus 103, 230, 237
Gluskaya 3. K. 118
Gmelin I. G. 15
Gogolev Z.V. 11, 393
Golubev V. A. 33
Gopat Shah 293, 294
Gorsky V. 23
Gauthier Yu. V. 370
Grach A. D. 11, 30, 227, 232
Grebenshchikov A. V. 23
Grigoriev A. A. 76, 184,
Grishin Yu. S. 213
Gromov V.I. 26, 38,44, 47, 57, 58, 61, 62
Grum-Grzhimailo G.E. 27, 244, 245, 284
Gryaznov M.P. 11, 29, 30, 117, 168, 170, 184, 227, 229, 232, 240
Guangxian 316
Gudulu see Ilteres Kagan,
Gurvich I. S. 11, 33 416
Guryev N. A. 153
Gyuryata Rogovich 13
Davydov D. 215, 216
Davydova A.V. 31, 250
Yes Yingzhuang see Yingzhuang
Dalai 333, 335
Dalobyan 271
Daoji 337
Yes Songlin see Songlin
Yes Qinmao see Qinmao
Yes Yanling see Yanling
Debets G.F. 25, 27, 33, 205
Devlet-Girey 372
Derevianko A. P.
Jenkinson A. 370
Jochi 365, 372
Digudey 326-328
Digunay 337, 338, 343
Digunai see Esykuy
Dikov N.N. 11, 31, 33, 93, 212. 221
Dietmar K. 423
Long Dyurantay 388
Dmitriev A. A. 20
Dolgikh B. O. 27, 31, 33, 387, 409, 416
Dorbo-Dokshin 384
Dravert P. L. 25
Dulzon A.P. 29, 98, 361
Think L.I. 316
Dongyen 326, 327
Dussheykhtich 424
Dyrenkova N. P. 27
Dyilga Khan 393, 394
Dyakonova V. P. 253, 33, 145, 310
Evtyukhova L. A. 25, 282, 289, 297-299
Edigey 364
Ediger 366, 371, 372
Ekmychi 369
Ermak 5, 10, 13, 19, 358
Ermolova N. M. 262
Efimenko P. P. 58
Zhelubovsky Yu. S. 33
Rui Zong 313, 314
Zabelina N. N. 33
Zalkind E. M. 32
Zaporizhskaya V.D. 55, 200, 296
Zakharov I. V. 318
Zelenin D.K. 26, 27
Znamensky N. S. 18
Zolotarev A. M. 26, 27, 354
Zuev V.F. 236, 356
Zuev Yu. A. 284
Ibak 364, 366, 368
Ivan III 368, 369
Ivan IV 371, 372
Ivaniev L.N. 25, 262
Igichey Alachev 357
Ignatiev I. 414
Idea I. 401
Iyekhsit 394
Ilbis kyysa 394
Ilbis Khan 391, 394
Ilteres Kagan (Gudulu, Kutlug) 272, 273, 282, 291, 292. 302
Imtugmit 421
Inge 326-328
Yingzhuang (Da Yingzhuang) 315, 316
Yin-zheng 248
Ionov V. M. 23
Yokhelson V. I. 23, 132, 153, 343, 344,
Isunke 380
Ishikha 405-407
Yetmar K. 184
Kalpik 368
Kan Van 404, 406
Kang Zhen 406
Kandangu 410
Kapagan (Mocho, Mojo) 273, 302
Karlgren B. 184
Kartsev V. G. 25, 28, 203
Castren A. M. 17
Katanov N. F. 19, 291, 358
Katkov A. F. 203
Kafarov P. 22, 342, 403
Kashchenko N.F. 13, 61
Kennan D. 7
Kiselev S. V. 24, 25, 29, 30, 159, 168, 184, 187, 191, 261, 276, 297-301
Klements D. A. 18, 19, 21, 23, 386
Kozhbahty 363
Kozin S. A. 27, 28, 384
KOZLOV P.K. 20
Kozyreva R.V. 11, 33
Kozmin N. N. 28, 296, 377
Komarova M. N. 98> 99, 165, 170, 178,
Kon F. Ya. 23
Konrad N.I. 320
Krasheninnikov S.P. 6, 15, 17, 131, 132, 344, 416-418, 421-423
Kreinovich Yu. A. 409
Krivtsova-Grekova O. A. 174
Kropotkin L. A. 21
KsenoTsyuntov G. V. 27
Kudryavtsev F. A. 28
Kuzemenkey 363
Kuznetsov A.K. 20
Kuznetsov S.K. 18
Kuluk-Saltan 364
Kupriyanova 3. N. 29
Kurbsky S. 369
Kurbsky F. (Black) 368
Kurmanak 357, 358
Kurov D. N. 371
Kutlug see Ilteres Kagan
Kuchum 358, 366, 367, 371, 372, 378
Kydai Bakhsy 394
Kyzlasov L. R. 11, 29, 227, 253, 258, 287, 289, 297, 301, 372
KychanovE. I. 11.320
Kalteeki Sabiya 392
Kyuzo Kato 8
Kul-Tegin 20, 273, 274, 282, 292
Kuner N.V. 27, 267, 280, 281, 297-302
Kyupi (Chebi Khan) 272
Landy-Chekha 410
Laoshan 247, 250
Larichev V. E. 10, 11, 31, 33, 262, 341
Latkin P. A. 18
Laufer B. 137
Lakha Batyr 390
Levashova V.P. 25, 365
Leventhal L. G. 23
Levin M. G. 8, 33, 347, 354, 409
Lengyel E. 8
Lenin V. I. 431
Lepekhin I. I. 235
Lesner E. 8
Liguangli 249, 260
Likaigu 312, 313
Lilin 260, 261
Limgan 329
Lindenau J. 15, 387
Lipsky A. N. 29. 30, 66, 168, 170
Lee Jin-chung 312
Lomonosov M.V. 6, 7, 370
Lopatin I. A. 132
Lor-uz odyr 356
Luque 326-328
Liao 316, 320, 322-324, 327-334, 338,
341, 379, 430 Lyatik 369
Magakia 217
Madagu 339
Madygy Törönoy 391
Maikov L. N. 14
Mainov I. I. 23
Makidu 408
Maksimenkov G. A. 11, 165
Malov S. E. 32, 274, 278, 285, 289,
Maltseva N. A. 11 Malyavkin A. G. 320
Mamet (Mahmst) 364
Mametkul 357
Mamrokhpagmit 421
Manduhe 327
Maodulu 326
Marwazi T. 381, 396
Margaritov V.P. 21 261 262
Marco Polo 381, 383
Marx K. 367
Martin F. 18
Martynov A.I. 10, 11, 241
Martyanov N. M. 25
Weight I. 370
Matveev 3. N. 27, 315
Matyushin G. N. 11
Matyushkin F, F. 410
Matyushenko V. I. 11, 100, 170, 179
Mahmet see Mamet
Ma Zhang-shou 279
Medvedev G.I. 11, 31, 80
Melioransky P. M. 20, 292
Mercator G. 370
Mehrhart 26
Messerschmidt D. G. 14, 187
Metelius Scipio 233
Middendorf A. F. 134, 135
Miller G. F. 5, 6, 15, 16, 357, 369, 395, 411
Milyukov P. N. 369
Min 22, 403, 404, 406, 407
Mogilnikov G. M. 11
Mogilyan (Bilge Kagan) 20, 273, 274, 283, 292
Mode 247, 248, 250, 257
Mokjang 323
Moldan 369
Morgan L.G. 26
Mochanov Yu. A. 33, 119
Mocho see Kapagan Mocho see Kapagan Moshinskaya V.I. 11, 29, 234, 354, 355
Moyun-chur 284-286, 288
Murtaza 366, 371
Muhan 270, 271, 281
Myngung 340
Mailaoseli 316
Manhun 355
Myagkov I. 241
Miaosun 325
Nagenne 326
Nanyang 317
Naryshkin V.V. 412
Nasonov A. N. 367
Nakhachu 404
Nekrasov I. A. 151, 221
Nelson N. 89, 90
Neryungin 392
Ningyasu 340
Novitsky G. 14. 97, 359
Notulu-shod 267
Nunangmeet 421
Nurkhani 408
Ovchinnikov M. P. 20
Ogloblin N. N. 422
Ogorodnikov V.I. 8, 28 409 417
Ogryzko I. I. 415, 416
Odun Khan (Chyngys Khan) 394
Oyeongcheon 330
Okamoto R. 133
Okladnikov A. P. 7, 8, 10, 11, 25 77 30, 31, 33, 44, 46, 47, 55, 87 88 104, 118, 119, 127, 128, 136, 137 141, 145, 151, 153, 196, 203, 204 207, 215-218, 221, 253, 261-264 291-293, 295, 296, 308, 310, 314, 320, 345, 347, 351, 383, 384, 388, 0, 392, 396, 405, 409, 412
Oksenov A. V. 20
Olebek-digin 384
Omogoy-bye 388
Omollon 390
Orlova E. P. 11
Osmolovsky G. 23
Osol uola 394
Ossovsky G. O. 18
Pavlinov D. M. 23
Pallas P.S. 15, 16
Panichkina M. 3. 65
Panov V. A. 23, 403, 407, 408
Panyady 371
Patkanov S.K. 20, 355
Pekarsky E.K. 23
Peredolsky V.V. 203
Perm Trifon 358
Perfilyev M. 387
Peter I 5, 232
Petri B. E. 21, 25, 26, 60, 65, 383
Petrun V. F. 87
Pignatti V. 19
Pilyachuch (Bilyukai) 424
Pliny 103
Pozdneev A. M. 21
Pozdneev D. 266, 310
Polashu 326
Polevoy B.P. 411
Polyakov I. S. 18
Popov A. A. 26, 27
Popov G. A. 28
Popov P. 23, 317, 403, 406
Potanin G. N. 21
Potapov L.P. 11, 26-28, 30, 274
Potapov R. L. 232
Przhevalsky N. M. 63
Prokofieva E. D. 359
Pronina G. I. 11
Pujiang 328
Torture 369
Peiman 337
Pyatkin B. G. 11
Radlov V.V. 19, 20, 30, 159, 187
Razin A. I. 261
Rashid al-din 373, 382, 385
Redrikov D. N. 25
Remezov S. U. 5, 14, 365
Rizhsky M.I. 11
Rozov G. 320
Rubruk V. 274
Rubtsova E. S. 33
Rudenko S. I. 8, 30 32 227, 244, 256,
Rumyantsev G. N. 11 32 Rust A. 43 Rygdylon E. R. 185 Rynkov K. M. 26, 27 Ryabushinsky F. P. 23
Sabyryky 392
Savenkov I. T. 18.25, 118
Savinov D. G. 232
Sagay 327, 328
Sagan-Secen 385
Saliha 334, 338
Salnikov K.V. 179, 238
Sapunov B. S. 33, 74
Sartaktai 293
Sarychev G. A. 16. 351
Sayapin A.K. 221
SvininV. V. 31
Northern Qi 271
Northern Zhou 271
Sedna 54, 550
Sedyakina E. F. 11, 31
Seydyak 366
Sergeev D. A. 11, 33, 347, 420
Seroshevsky V. 24
Xiluandi 247
Silyakshagmit 420
Xizong (Hela) 333-337
Skryaba V. 368
Slovtsov P. A. 5
Slyunin N. 128
Seonjeong 323
Sorokin V. S. 174, 178
Sosnovsky G. P. 24-26, 44, 62, 69, 213, 242, 243. 245, 250
Sokhhor Duoai 392
Spassky G. I. 17
Spafariy N. G. 13
Stadukhin M. 412, 415
Steller G.V. 15, 32, 131, 423, 424
Stepanov N. N. 10, 11, 34
Stefan Permsky 368
Stralenberg I.F. 14, 393
Stroganov 357
Subudai 340
Sui 267, 271, 280, 283, 310, 311
Song 333, 334, 338 340
Songlin (Da Songlin) 315
Simatsyan 242 243, 245, 250
Sam Y. A. 317
Seerkeen Sesen 388
Xiubao Shounu 335
Shunko-haan Shuge toyon 394
Syagogmit 420
Xiao Xiong-ning 323
Xiaoxiaoxian 317
Xiaofuli 332
Taizu 404
Talitskaya I. A. 355
Talko-Gryntsevich Yu. D 20 242
Tan 267, 273, 297, 302, 312, 377
Tan-Bogoraz V. G. see Bogoraz-Tan
Tanshihai 252, 253, 307
Tardush Khan 271
Tatishchev V. N. 14, 15
Temujin see Chinggis Khan
Tengri 283
Teploukhov S. A. 24, 25, 159, 184, 187
Tieteybit Bootur 390, 391
Toba Way 253
Tobo 270, 271, 283
Tokarev S. A. 26-28, 29, 32, 390, 392
Tokkash 363
THICK S.P. 183
Thomsen V. 16, 20
Tonyukuk 273
Tokhtamysh 364
Travkin I. S. 368
Tugarinov A. Ya. 63, 123
Tudiji 310, 311
Tuli (Yanhan) 271
Tuluy 339, 340
Fog 247, 248
Tumen 267, 270
Tundalah 406
Tuntuhe 249
Tygyn 387, 390
Taylor E. 26
Tyumenets V. 387
Tuerey 392
Tyagrul 371
Tian Zhu-cheng 405
Uvarov A. S. 48
Ugunay 325
Ogedei 339, 340, 379, 380
Udabu 339, 340
Ukimai 333
Ulagashev N. U. 27
Ulu (Shizong) 338, 339
Umansky A.P. 303
Unkebil-Hosun 409
Uraev R. A. 241
Uren-Hosun 409
Usun Dyurantayi Suruksut 388
Wuzhu 334, 335
Ushaty P. 369
Wells G. 94
Uyasu 328-332
Fanshi 328
Fedorov A. 3. 22
Fedoseeva S. A. 11, 39, 119
Firsov Pozdey 387
Fusehu 338
Fengwan 333
Khamzina E. A. 31
Khangalov M. N. 21, 385, 386
Hanlibu 333
Hanpu 324, 332
Khatan Timieriye see Aan Darkhan-toyon
Heihuan 328
Heli 271, 272, 280, 284
Khlobystina M. D. 181
Khodukin Y. N. 25, 60
Khomporuun Hotoy aiyy 394
Good P.P. 25, 31
Khramova V.V. 361
Kublai 402
Khudukha-beki 382, 384
Hushahu 335, 339, 340
Hala see Xizong
Halibo 325, 328
Hatt G. 151
Tseytlin S. M. 61
Jin (Golden Empire, Jurchen) 11, 307, 320, 324, 332-335, 339,
340, 342, 375, 379, 405, 430
Jinxing 310, 311
Jin Yu-fu 313-315, 317, 318
Zuorong 312-314, 317
Zongben 337
Zuyuan see Aolo Qibushi 327
Qing 248, 408, 430, 431
Qin Yin-zheng see Qin Shi Huangdi Qinmao (Da Qichmao) 315, 318
Qin Shi Huang (Qin Yin-zheng) 248
Tsis Biyu 3 12
Qiqi Zhongxiang 312
Tsevan-Rabtan 379
Chagatai 339
Changwenxu 314
Changchun 373, 375, 376
Chebi Khan see Kyupi Chegra 364
Chekanovsky A. L. 20, 59, 60, 400
Chenlin 340
Chernetsov V. N. 25-27, 29, 96, 100, 241, 304, 355
Chernyshev N.A.100
Chersky I. D. 20, 48, 59, 60
Zhang Xing-ji 313
Zhang Xuan 315
Zhanmoha 338
Zhanqiang 249
Zhidu 326-328
Zhilihai 325
Zhizhi 249
Zhou 247, 271, 283
Zhonghing Yue 247
Zhuchi 339, 384
Chinggis Khan (Temuchin) 16, 303 339 340, 364, 372, 379-381, 384, 385, 430
Chorbogor Batyr 390
Chubukov Tretyak 372
Chugunov S. M. 18
Chulo-khan 271
Chuluro Selergun 398
Chyngys Khan see Odun Khan
Shabolio (Shetu) 269, 271, 278
Shavkunov E. V. 11, 33, 307, 317
Shalgan 400
Shaman (Samai) 400
Chardin T., de 89
Shakhmatov A. A. 13
Sheybani Khan 364
Shengong 330
Shetu see Chabolio
Shidihuan 328, 329
Shilu 324, 325
Shintavul 399
Shitumyn 325, 327, 329, 330, 341
Shizong see Ulu
Shletser A. 6
Schmidt P. P. 22
Schneider E. 168
Schott W. 299
Shrenk L. I. 22, 131, 132, 135, 156
Staden G. 369
Sternberg L. Ya. 22, 26, 131, 133, 138
Shengun 330
Shende 316
Shcheglov I. V. 5
Ejen 401, 402
Eichwald E. I. 17
Elibao 327
Ellyai-Bootur 388
Engels F. 86, 367
Ergis G.U. 32, 392
Esykuy (Digunay) 341, 342
Yuan 381, 402, 403
Yungwan 329-331
Yunji 339
Yuryung Aiyy-toyon 388, 393, 394,
Yabolak 364 Yaglakar 284
Yalpinma, N. M. 20, 21, 274
Yamgurchey 364
Yankovsky M. I. 21
Yanling (Yes Yanling) 317
Yang Zhong-jiang 89
Yanhan see Tuli
Yastremsky S. V. 23
Yash Ak bash 289, 290
Bogoras W. 23, 26
Castren M. A. 17
Chavannes E. 271
Fong Chia-sheng 316
Giddings I. L. 350
Jochelson W. 23, 131, 411
LiuVMau-tsai 267, 269-272, 277-281, 283
Maenchen-Helfen O. 267
Messerschmidt D. G. 14
Okladnikov A. P. 8, 221
Patkanov S. 356, 357
Ponosov V. V. 89
Pullejblank E. G. 284, 288
Rafney F. 346, 347, 349
Ralph E. 346, 349
Ruclenko S. I. 8
Shirokogoroff S. 397
Strahlenberg F. J. 393
Teilhard de Charbin P. 89.
Wittfogel K. A. 326
Geographical index
Abakan, 260
Abakan, r. 14, 68, 166, 268, 281, 298, 299, 378
Abakan steppe 19, 190
Abakansky prison 15
Avvakumovka 264
Aginsky national district 216
Aginskoye 215
Agitsky town 366
Asia 6, 7, 9, 10, 26, 40, 43, 44, 49, 59, 72-76, 85, 90, 92, 93, 97, 139, 144, 151, 154, 200, 257, 307, 310 , 314, 370, 381, 395, 419, 425, 428, 430-432, 443
Alazeya 409, 410, 411
Alashan 268
Abaza 400
Aldan 33, 95, 119, 120, 122, 207, 209, 387, 401
Alekseevskoe settlement 178
Aleutian Islands 23, 91, 154, 425
Altai-Sayan Highlands see Sayan-Altai Highlands
Altai (Altai Mountains) 11, 13, 15-19, 29, 30, 40, 41, 44, 65-67, 69-71, 78-80, 85, 159, 161, 162, 172, 186, 194, 196 , 211, 217, 218, 227, 228, 230-233, 239, 266, 268, 269, 271, 272, 274-279, 281, 282, 284, 288, 296, 302-304, 306, 360, 376, 376, 376 , 381, 382, 429
Altyrsky ulus 378
Altysarsky ulus 377
Alchuk 324, 325
Alaska 32, 89, 90, 93, 151, 347, 419, 425
Amga 209, 387
Amguem 221, 412
Amgun 401
America 26, 38, 93, 139, 141, 151, 154, 345, 419, 425
Amnokkan 317
Amu Darya 40, 96, 179, 185
Amur 7, 22, 28, 32, 42, 66, 69, 72, 86, 89-91, 94, 95, 116. 126-141, 145 147-149, 153, 156, 252, 264 265 268, 307- 309, 320, 321, 334, 343, 392, 396, 401-407, 429-431
Amur Bay 261, 262
Amur region 21-23, 132, 135, 262
Anadyrsky Estuary 412, 413
Anadyrsky prison 416
Anadyr 151, 222, 350, 409, 410, 412, 415, 416
Angara 20-28, 31, tab. 38-39, 41, 44, 45, 47, 49, 51, 56-61, 65-67, 70-72, 79, 80, 82, 84, 85, 88, 94, 104, 105, 107, 111, 113, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125, 132, 199, 201, 206, 210, 211, 268, 291, 292-294, 297, 387, 396, 400, 428, 431
Angkola see Angara
Andreevskaya parking lot 96
Andrew's Lake 96, 100
Andronovo 24, 178
Antalsky Cape 234
Anuchinsky district 319
Anbian 316, 318
Anyuan 318
Anyang 184, 185
Anyui 401, 412
Aral Sea 249
Argun 213,251, 268
Arctic 38, 39, 64, 76, 95, 127, 343, 346-348, 419
Arctic coast 348
Artemgres 142, 220
Assyria 230, 233
Astrakhanka 91
Astrakhan Khanate 358
Astrakhan 371
Asuchen 327, 328
Atargan 344, 345
Afanasieva Gora 24, 161, 162, 164
Afontova II, III table. 38-39, 58, 62-
64, 69 Afontova Gora 18, 25, 44, 62, 63, 65, 68,
70, 71, 78, 79, 85, 105, 119, 203,
Africa 42, 43, 68, 77 Achinsk 71, 377 Ayatskoye Lake 354
Badai 44, 65
Bazaikha 18, 117, 118, 203-205
Baidinsky caves 296
Baikal 13, 21, 28, 31, 39, 44, 49, 59, 61 65, 72, 94, 184, 196, 206, 210-212, 214, 215, 218, 249, 266-270, 272, 291, 292, 295, 302, 381, 382, 387, 388, 396, 400 Baikal coast 292 Bairaki 381 Bai-Khaka 373 Bactriana 230
Balagansk 31, 44, 60, 292-294 Balagachevo 361, 362 Baltic Sea 103 Baltic 76, 94, 133 Balkhash 268, 284 Barabinskaya steppe (forest-steppe-Baraba)
19, 237, 239, 363, 366, 372 Baranov Cape 16, 347, 350-352 Bargudzhin-Tukum 382, 384 Barguzin 292, 387 Bardakovka 354 Barents Sea 370 Barkul 269 Barlyk 376 Barun-Kondu settlement 18 th 379 Basandaika 361, 362
Bateni 24, 25, 117, 170
Bashadar 227
Bashadar mounds 30
Bashkiria 303
Unnamed key 87
Bekdegeul 42
Beklemisheve 213
Bektemirovskaya site 44 Belaya, r. 31, 44, 45, 57, 58, 65, 79, 80, 84, 86, 151, 221, 222, 412
Beloglazovo 303
Belogorye 359
Beloe, lake 377
Belarus 78
White Iyus 377, 378
Belkachi 120, 122
Beltyry 161
Berezov 235
Berezovka table 38-39, 249
Berezovsky region 355
Berezovsky district 355
Berezovsky prison 370
Bering Sea 32, 346, 411-416, 419
Bering Isthmus 26
Bering Strait 46, 89, 90, 95, 151, 207, 346, 352, 419
Beshbalik 273
Bibikovo 74
Biy-Khem 268
Binzhou 332
Birobidzhan Lowland 308
Biryulskoe 44
Biryusa 18, 79, 387
Biryusa B 62
Biryusinskaya site 79
Blagoveshchensk 9, 89 148
Blagoveshchensky district 308
Near Elbany 29, 240
Middle East 40
Bogdo-ola (Gaochang) 268, 269
Bogtu-ul 361
God's Lake 377
Bokujiang 403
Bolon-Ojal 134
Bolshaya, r. 416
Bolshaya Rechka 240
Bolshezemelskaya tundra 94
Big Anyui 412
Big threshold 377
Greater Khingan 21, 268
Bom-Kemchik 291
Boro-horo 268
Bosporus 303
Bohai (Bohai State) 11, 27, 307, 313-320, 337, 341, 405, 430
Bratsk 7, 31, 111, 119, 124
Bratskaya HPP 6, 28, 31
Bratsky Stone 106
British Isles 37
Bugachan 208, 209
Buga-Chuchigai 380
Budulan 212
Buirnur 381
Buret 25, 41, 44-51, 57-61, 65, 66, 68, 70-72, 79, 86, 428
Burinsky district 239
Buryatia 28, 32, 44, 184, 300
Buryat ASS.R 7, 383
Bukhori 324
Bianhan 313
Besteh 392
Bian 333, 339, 340
Babylon 233
Vagay 237, 366
Vaigach 367
Vankarem 350, 351
Vasyugan 354, 359, 360
Velikaya, r. 416
Great Mangu State 335
Hungary 227, 355
Venyukovo 91
Upper Amur region 140, 398, 401
Upper Kama 303
Upper Ob region 99, 170, 234, 239-241
Verkhneudinsk 216
Verkhneudinsky district 215
Verkhniye Chemy 99
Upper Amur 89
Verkhniy Vilyui 119, 123
Upper Yenisei 117, 268, 285, 286, 289,291, 360, 372-374
Verkhnyaya Lena 55, 65, 72, 295
Upper Ob 29, 98, 99, 100, 169, 170, 240
Upper capital (Bohai; Huiningfu, Shanjin) 316, 333, 335, 337, 338, 342
Verkhnyaya Tavda 234
Verkholensk 295, 388
Verkholenskaya Mountain 17, 26, 31, 44, 60, 65, 67, 69, 80, 82, 83, 88, 105
Verkhoyansk ridge 401
Byzantium 2/0
Vilyui 28, 33, 95, 119, 123-125, 207-210, 387, 392, 396, 401
Vishera 354, 368 Vladivostok 9, 28, 32, 88 94 141 142, 220, 263, 407
Inner Asia 39
Inner Mongolia 116, 314
Military hospital 20, 44, 48, 59, 60, 63, 428
Voznesenskoye 138
Voykar town 358
Volga 249, 303, 371
Volgo-Oksky district 104
Volga Bulgaria 305
Vorobyovo 113
Crow River (Kula-ky) 360
East Asia 40, 43, 74, 75, 82, 91,92, 116, 127, 131, 144, 145, 201, 213,
255, 314, 320, 340
Eastern Europe tab. 38-39, 41, 49,59, 76, 96, 104, 194, 211, 251, 303,
Eastern Capital (Bohai) 317, 319, 333,338
Eastern Transbaikalia 212, 216
East Sea 323
Eastern Primorye 264, 314
Eastern Urals 85, 96
Eastern Sayan 117, 268, 289, 372
Eastern Altai 30
Eastern Dan see Dundango Eastern Kazakhstan 228, 232, 286, 291
Eastern Ocean see Pacific Ocean
Eastern Tibet 21
East Turkestan 271, 290, 307
Woju 313
Vychegda 368
Vietnam 74, 92
Weikou 323
Gansu 269
Gaoli see Goguryeo
Gaochang see Bogdo-ola
Garrison Garden 318
Gelgyai 121
Gizhiga 416
Himalayas 40, 71
Girin 405, 408
Gladkaya, r. 143-145
Smooth I 144
Glazkovsky burial ground 20
Capercaillie River (Sangel-ky) 360
Gobi 40, 89, 90, 141, 257, 266, 268,270, 271
Gobi Altai 268
Holland 370
Golygina 421
Gornaya Shoria 66
Gornoaltaysk 40-42
Mountain farms 74, 342
Gorny Altai 30, 227, 266, 282, 286
Gorkoye, lake 24, 25
Greenland 37, 151, 419
Gromatukha, settlement 148
Gromatukha, r. 148
Guisui see Guihuangcheng
Guihuachen (Cucuhoto, Guisui) 268, 273
Goose Lake 216
Hyda table 36-37
Guilou 313, 314
Gyan see Yenisei
Davydov 388
Dalai-nor 268
Far Eastern region see East
Far East 7, 8-11, 18, 22 27 30 32, 33, 42, 72-75, 80, 87, 90 94 116, 117, 127, 128, 132-134 136 138-141, 144, 145, 148 , 168, 170, 184, 185, 201, 213, 218, 219, 241, 251 261, 267, 280, 281, 297, 299-301, 307, 308, 310, 313, 320, 381, 402,. 403, 408, 409, 429, 439
Daubihe 319, 331
Nine 130, 139
Dezhneva, cape 411
Delune-Baldock 377, 379
Demyanka 354, 355, 358
Demyansky town 355
Den-Terek 373, 374
Derestuisky Kultuk 20
Derestuisky burial ground 249
Desary see Yezersky ulus
Jasybay 25
Jebel 82, 96
Dzhezkazgan 183
Jida 214, 216
Dzungaria 267, 379
Dzungarian steppe 19
Dzungarian Alatau 268
Dili see Tyr
Dinan 316
Dingli 316, 318
Doolin 403
Dordogne 428
Ancient Greece 138
Dugin see Tukin
Dunajka 145, 149, 150
Dongbei 307
Dundango (Eastern Dan) 316, 322, 324
Dunmo 312, 313
Dongning 404
Dongjingchen 319
Dunhua (Jianzhou) 405, 407
Duren 242-244
Dus-dag (Salt Mountain) 375
Dyndybay 183
Dengzhou 314
Eurasia 57, 74, 158, 165, 187, 217, 303, 429, 430
Jewish Autonomous Region 264
Europe 26, 37, 38, 40, 43, 44, 50, 52, 53, 58, 59, 68, 72, 76, 77, 82, 83, 85, 89. 97, 127, 139, 230, 257, 303 , 428, 431
Egypt 230
Echersky (Isarsky) ulus (Desary) 377
Catherine's site 100
Ekaterininskoe, village 142
Elan (Elan region, Elan province) 325, 330, 332. 337. 341-343
Elan, R. 324
Elizarova table. 38-39.
Elovka 186
Emder-vosh 355
Enzyayam (“big river”) see Yenisei
Yenisei 7, 11, 13, 14, 18, 28, 29, 32, tab. 38-39, 40, 41, 44, 59, 61, 63, 65-68, 70, 72, 76, 79, 80, 85, 94, 95, 104, 105, 116-119, 123, 159, 162, 165, 166, 168-170, 172, 177, 178, 180, 183-187, 189, 191, 194, 196, 203-205, 217, 241, 249, 257, 258, 260 261, 274, 275, 2 85 , 291, 296, 297-299, 302, 359, 360, 361, 370, 373, 377, 378, 395, 396, 400, 428, 429
Yeniseisk 361, 387
Yenisei region 71, 116
Yenisei Ridge 117
Epanchinsky yurts 366
Ermolaevskoye ancient settlement 117, 203
Yellow (Huang He), r. 140, 211, 215, 268-270, 321, 333, 339, 431
Zhekhe 184 Zhigalovo 292 Zhigansk 125-127, 387 Zhirkova 125 Crane River (Karal-ky) 360
Transbaikalia 11, 13, 15, 17, 20, 73, 82, 83, 86, 88, 116, 145, 184, 185, 210-218, 232, 239, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 252, 253 , 256, 261, 307, 379, 380, 381, 385, 386, 395, 396, 402, 429
Transbaikal region 215
Zabochka-Kokorevo I 64
Zavolochye 368
Zavyalova, Fr. 344
Zadvizhensk 249
Zaysan 268
Zaisanovka 143, 144
Western Europe 13, 26, 49, 58, 76, 87,
Western Mongolia 27, 244, 245, 284
Western Transbaikalia 213, 216
Western Baikal region 295
Western Priobye 304,
Western Urals 40
West Siberian forest-steppe 303, 304
West Siberian region 96
Western Sayans 268, 271, 274, 289
Western Altai 269, 272, 274
Western Kazakhstan 178
Western Ulus (Siberian Khanate) 365
Zapolyarye 63
Zarubino 83, 381, 384
Zauralie 233, 237-239, 353, 367-371
Zeya Valley 42
Zeya-Bureya Lowland. Zeya 41, 43, 145, 148, 308, 392
Golden Horde 364
Ivanovka 142
Ivanovo 249
Ivolga 31, 215, 250
Ivolginskoe, village 216
Ivolginskoe fortified settlement see Nizhne-Ivolginskoe fortified settlement
Lime hill 342
Izyrsu 377
Izykh chaatas 258
Yilan-zhou 373, 375
Iligulun 328
Ilim 31, 387
Elm pad 20, 242, 243, 245
Ilyushkina Sopka 74
Iman 308 38-39, 94,392,400, 409, 410
Indian Ocean 233
Indochina 75, 265
Indonesia 268, 270, 272, 273
Ipaligai 359
Ipiutaksky burial ground 347
Iran (Persia) 230, 233, 270, 277, 295
Iranian plateau 40
Irkutsk 9, 17, 20, 41, 44, 48, 59, 60, 65 88 115, 124, 196, 294, 428
Irkutsk province 17
Irkutsk HPP 28, 3.8, 25.97, 234 237, 241, 249 268, 285, 354, 355, 358, 359, 36 11, 364-369, 372, 378
Irtysh Black 268
Isarsky ulus see Ezersky ulus
Iset 237, 238
Isker 19, 358
Spain 38
Issyk-Kul 268
Iturup 157, 158
Ityrkhey 296
Ichchilyakh 208, 209
Ishim 237, 364, 378
Ishim forest-steppe 237 Iyus 16, 379
Kaa-Khem see Upper Yenisei Kaa-Khem district 275
Kabansk 292, 381
Kazan Khanate 358, 364, 371
Kazan 371
Kazakhstan 77, 172, 173, 179 180 183, 185, 217. 227
Cossack 31
Kazylgan 229
Kailin 335
Kairak-Kumy 40
Kaiyuan 403, 404, 407
Kalashnikova Pad 31
Kalgan 251
Kama 353, 354, 357, 368
Stone Islands 20, 31, 113
Stone Log 182
Stone Cape 153
Pebbles 221
Kamchatka (Kamchatka Peninsula) 11, 15, 17, 23, 28, 33, 93, 128, 129, 132, 134, 153, 154, 156, 343, 344, 346, 410, 412, 415, 416, 417, 421 , 422, 424, 425
Kamchatka, r. 93, 343, 416, 421
Kamchatka region 33
Kamchatka Isthmus 416
Kamyshta 166
Canadian Arctic Archipelago 419
Kankor 357
Kanchalan 412
Kaochan (Turfan) 268, 269, 271
Kapova Cave 40
Karaga 416
Karakorum (Kharahorin) 20, 260, 379
Kara-Kum (“Black Sands”, Heisha) 272,273
Kara-Kurgan 190, 195
Kara-ky see Crane River Karasuk 24, 162, 167, 182
Karasuk 111 161, 164
Kara-khol 274
Karachin town 366
Karashar 267, 268
Karelia 104, 125
Kara Sea 367, 370
Karypospat-urdat-vosh 355
Killer whale 157
Kasatka coast 157
Caspian Sea 249, 381
Katanga see Tunguska Middle, Tunguska Lower
Katun 44, 78, 79, 268
Kashgar 268
Kashlyk (Siberia) 364, 365, 366, 371
Kem see Yenisei Kem-Yenisei see Yenisei Kemerovo 9
Kemerovo region. 258
Kergedan 357
Kerulen 251, 268, 381, 430 Ket 359, 360, 378
Kievan Rus 430
Gilju 330
Kiprino 99
Kyrgyzstan 32, 297, 303, 397
Kyrgyz steppe 19
Kirensk 61
Kirovsky, pos. 142, 220
China 1, 41, 73, 89, 233, 242, 247, 248, 250-252, 265, 267, 269-274, 277, 3] 1-3 16, 319, 320, 332, 333, 338-406, 430
Kiya 258, 361, 362, 37?
Knyazhev town 366
Kobdo 268, 376
Goguryeo (Gaoli) 308, 311 314 315, 317, 319, 331
Codex Principality 369
Kozlova Pereima 96
Kozlovsky burial ground 304
Kokonovsky mounds 237
Kokorevo I, IV table. 38-39, 62-64, 78
Gokju 330
Kokel 255-257
Kolyma 16, 94, 126, 151, 347, 350-352, 409-412, 415, 419
Kola Bay 210
Commander Islands (Tanamas) 128, 425, 426
Komsomolsk-on-Amur (Komsomolsk) 89, 134, 150, 264
Konda 25, 89, 150, 353, 354, 372
Condon (Mail) tab. 38-39, 89, 129,130, 133-135, 137, 139, 150, 219, 264
Konduisky town 21, 379
Gonghomjin 330
Kopenskoe settlement 297
Kopet-Dag 40
Korean Peninsula 311, 315, 319
Korendo 400
Korea 73, 129, 141-145, 265, 320, 323,327, 331, 407, 430
Kore 315-317, 320, 323, 324, 326, 328,329, 331-333, 338
Kosogol 216, 267, 376
Kostenki I 53, 59, 60, 428
Kosva 354
Kotokel 212
Kochergino 25
Kochetovo 373
Kosho-Tsaidam 273
Kraskino 319
Kraskinskoe settlement 319
Krasnoturansk 187
Krasnoyarsk 18, 25, 44, 62, 79, 95,117-119, 169, 179, 185, 203, 377,378, 381
Krasnoyarsk HPP 28, 30
Krasnoyarsk forest-steppe 204
Krasnoyarsk Sopka 342
Krasnoyarsk region 30
Krasny Yar (Angara) 44, 60, 71, 84
Krasny Yar (Ob) 186
Cross, hall. 411, 412
Krivinskoe 24
Crooked key 87
Krotovo, II, VII 100, 170
Round hill 319
Krusenstern, cape 151
Where 41, 218, 294-296
Kudinskaya steppe 292
Kulirge 275, 278
Kuaedeevo 66
Kuznetsk 376
Kuznetsk steppe 271
Kuznetsky Alatau 17, 258, 299
Kuznetsk burial ground 100, 104
Kuibyshevsk (Rubetsu) 158
Kukelevo 33, 264
Cucu Hoto see Guihuachen
Kulaika 241
Kula-ky see Crow River
Kulary 366
Kullaty, settlement 120-122, 207-209
Kullaty-Yuryakh, r. 121, 208
Kultuk 20, 153, 154
Kulunda steppe 241
Culyegan 359
Kungur Cave 14
Kundat-yul 361
Kunkur 212
Cook 354
Kurgan 238
Kurgan region 6, 7, 238
Kurilsk 157
Kuril Islands (Kuril ridge, Kuriles) 11, 28, 33, 91, 154, 156-
158, 346, 423, 426
Kuril Lake 344
Kurota 30, 161
Kuxiantong 90
Kylarsa I 122
Kyrgyz-nur 296
Kytyl-Gyura 392
Cam see Yenisei Kam-kamjut see Yenisei Keteme 392
Kian-zhou 373, 375
Kyakhta 20, 61
Camp Garden 98
Ladeyki 117, 185
Ladeya settlement 203
Lazovsky district 264
Laiyuan 323
Lalin 403
Lampyl-ky see Eagle River
Lamu see Baikal
Laptev, sea 38, 71
Laryak 354
Arctic Sea see Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean see Arctic Ocean
Lena 44, 55, 61, 65-67, 70, 72, 76, 77 84, 94, 95, 104, 113, 119, 123, 125-127, 151, 201, 206-209, 211, 292, 296, 381, 382, 387, 388, 392, 95, 396, 400, 401, 409, 428
Lenyanabad 40
Leningrad 9, 16, 94, 204, 380
Leninsky district 33
Lenkovka 31, 67, 79-81, 83
Lob-nor 268
Loava 234, 354, 368 I Blade 423
Leulan 249, 444
Lyukechen 327
Laylyukhe 332
Liaodong 268, 317, 324, 404, 406
Liaodong Bay 270
Liaoning 404
Liaoyang 313, 322, 324, 340
Lyapin town 369
Lyapinskaya parish 357
Magadan 344, 345
Maihe, village 74
Maihe, b. 74, 143, 261
Makarov 65
Malay Archipelago 145
Malaya Derbina 119
Malaya Perm 368
Small Pad 262, 264
Minor Heta tab. 38-39
Malye Kopeny 24, 164
Maly Anyui 412
Maly Yenisei 285, 286
Small Cat 41
Small Cape 178
Malta 25, tab. 38-39, 41-52, 55-61, 65, 66, 68, 71, 72, 79, 86, 428
Mammoth, cave 48
Mangazeya 29
Manga see Cupid
Manzurka 381
Manhai, mountain 218, 295, 296
Mankhai settlement (Manhai) 295, 296
Manchuria 22, 89, 145, 217, 248, 265, 267, 284, 313, 319, 320, 324, 339, 343, 381, 402, 404-408, 430
Mariinsk 258
Mariinsky district 18
Markhachan 44, 65
Majilin 329, 331
Bear Islands 351, 352
“Bear Cheeks”, gorge 136
Mezhegey settlement 373
Mezhegei mines 374
Mezin 58, 428
Meret I, II 99
Miass 237, 238
Mussel 230, 233
Milimishihan 327
Minus 218
Minusinsk 18
Minusinsk (Khakass-Minusinsk) basin 10, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25, 117, 159, 165, 170, 184-187, 189, 196, 242, 255, 257, 258, 275, 277-279, 281 , 296-299, 302, 373,
29, 30, 44, 62 172, 176, 181, 204-206, 240, 260, 266, 272, 282, 285, 286, 429
Minusinsk region 212, 213, 429
Minusinsky district 25
Mikhailovka 258i 24, 27, 159, 172, 210,
Burial grounds 98
Mogoituy 216
Moisenka 161
Moluccas 201
Molchanovo 29, 360
Mongolia 5 20 21, 32, 38, 40, 41, 59, 63, 66 69, 75, 86, 89, 116, 41, 145,
180, 184, 21,1 215, 217, 218, 228, 232, 242 243, 245, 248. 250, 251, 255. 260 266, 267, 269, 272, 274, 281, 282, 288, 289, 300, 307, 311, 313,
372, 373,379, 381, 382, 384, 386, 428, 430
Mongol Empire 385, 386, 431
Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) 44, 89, 215, 216, 251, 273 Mongolian Altai 40, 267, 268, 270,
Moravia 428 Moraika 170 Moscow 9, 369, 370-372
Moscow state see Russian state
Mokhovaya, r. table 38-39
Mojie 316, 317
Mudanjiang (Hurha-bira) 316, 319, 405,
Mukden 322, 403
Moulin 407
Munch 120-122
Muslyumovo 249
Mongun-taiga 275, 277
Naa-Khem see Small Yenisei
Nazarove 19
Nayfeld 309, 310
Narym region 241, 305
Narymsky fort 360
Naukan 350, 421
Nakhodka, bay 73
Misunderstandings, oh. 151-153
Nerchinsk 13, 212
Nerchinsky district 15
Lower Amur region 395
Lower Irtyshye 305
Lower Ob region 11, 29, 96, 97, 232, 234, 241, 303, 304, 355
Lower Prichulymie 306
Nizhneye Seredkino 31
Nizhne-Ivolginskoe settlement 243, 244, 249, 250, 251
Nizhne-Kamchatsky fort 424
Nizhnekolymsk 151
Lower Amur 128, 133, 134, 139, 141,
142, 145, 147, 150, 157, 334, 401-403
Nizhny Tobol 364
Nizhnyaya Angara 123
Nizhnyaya Berezovka 212
Nizhnyaya Buret 44
Lower Kolyma 346
Nizhnyaya Lena 122, 151
Nizhnyaya Ob 14, 99
Nikolka 343
Nikolskoye settlement 343. 344
New Earth 367, 370
Novgorod (Veliky) 367, 368
Novgorod Land 367
Novgorod Republic 367, 368
Novo-1 Rigoryevka 249
Novokuskovskaya site 98
Novopetrovka 33 145i 146, 148-150
Novopetrovka 1, II, 146 149 150
Novopokrovka 150, 310
Novoselovo 176
Novosibirsk 8, 9, 29, 186
New Siberian Islands 63
Nogliki 154, 156
Noin-Ula 20, 242, 244, 246, 249
Noin-Ula mounds 256
Nonny 317, 320, 322
Nurgan (Nulukhan, Nuruhan) 403-407
Nurgan Sea 407
Nyaksimvol 234
Nyan Shan 268
Obdorsky fort 370
Ob Bay 235, 370
Obusinsky burial grounds 386
Ob 11, 17, 18, 25, 29, tab. 38-39, 44, 94, 96, 97, 165, 172, 177, 180, 185, 186, 190, 234, 235, 241, 266, 268, 275, 303, 306, 354, 356, 359-361, 363, 366, 367, 369-371, 376
Ob-Yenisei interfluve 306
Ovur district 289
Oglakhtinsky burial ground 249, 255
Odolin 403
Ozen-Ala-Belig 229
Oymak 373, 374
Oirotia 27
Okinina 384
Windows 380
Okunev ulus 165
Okunevsky burial ground 168
Olekma 387, 396
Olekminsk 120, 125, 209, 392
Olenek 95, 401, 409
Oleneostrovsky burial ground 210
Reindeer farm (on Maihe) 143
Olga, bay 261
Olga, village 264
Olginsky district 264
Olginsky, Fr. 151, 152
Olkhon 292, 295, 296
Om 238, 365, 366
Ongin-gol 268
Lake Onega 125, 127
Onon 20, 212-214, 216, 250, 268, 379, 381, 430
Ordos 61, 116, 184, 185, 227 248, 249, 270
Ordynskoye 100
Eagle River (Lampyl-ky) 360) ro 400
Orkhon29260 59. 266. 268, 273, 285, 291, 302.373,376,381
Osinovka 73, 74, 88. 91, 143, 308. 402
Aspen Lake 149, 150, 309
Osinovsky Hill 73-75, 142
Osinovskoe settlement 87
Otuken 271-273
Okhotsk 416
Sea of Okhotsk 154, 395, 400, 415, 416
Okhotsk coast 11, 33, 151, 153,
344, 346, 395, 400 Eshurkovo 65, 67, 68, 71, 82, 105
Pazyryk 217, 227-230, 233
Pazyryk, r. 227
Palana 416
Pamir 40, 431
Parabel 359, 360
Guy 416
Parthia 230
Pachanga 360
Beijing 23, 314, 339
Pelym 354, 355, 368
Punjab 42
Penzhina 416
Penzhinskaya Bay 415
Resettlement point 44, 203
Perm 249, 368
Persia see Iran
Pershino 239
Peschany, peninsula 22, 32, 33, 262, 263
St. Petersburg see Leningrad
Peter the Great, hall. 32, 90
Petrovskaya 388
Petropavlovsk (Kamchatsky) 134, 153
Pechora 234, 305, 353. 368, 369
Pechora Land 367
Pidenshui 329
Pingliang 268, 269
Pisanaya, village 100, 101
Written, oh. 388
Plemkhoz, parking lot 122
Volga region 184, 358, 371
Podgornoye 24, 241
Podkamen 297
Podsukhanikha 161
Pokrovskoe 120, 208, 209
Polynesia 139
Pltso 264, 265
Poland 370
Polar Loberezhye 76
Arctic Circle 95, 125
Pomorie 370, 371
Popelki 264
Parrot 94
Por-Bazhin 286
Posyet 261
Potchevash 237
Mail see Condon
Prebaikalye 385
Amur region 32 33, 72, 92, 116, 127, 129, 132, 135, 137, 218, 221, 261, 264, 340, 395, 401, 402 404 406, 408, 430
Priangarye 104, 292, 384, 395, 400
Aral Sea 103, 104, 183
Baikal region 10, 20, 25 27, 31, 44, 71, 76, 79, 80, 82-84 86-88, 95, 96, 104, 105, 107-109, 111, 113-121, 123, 124, 127 , 133, 139 148, 153, 196-198, 200, 201-205, 207-211, 222, 242, 292, 293, 372 381-387, 390, 400, 428
Baltic 76, 236
Priirtyshye 11, 233, 234, 238, 239, 303-305, 366
Caspian lowland 40
Prikamie 305, 357, 368, 372
Primorsky Krai 72, 141, 142, 308, 319
Primorye 21, 22, 32, 33, 73, 87, 88, 90, 93 94 127, 130, 132-135, 141-145, 150 153, 156, 157, 218-221, 261, 262 264, 265, 308 , 309, 314, 316, 319 320, 324-326, 329-332, 337, 340, 341-343, 406-408, 429, 430
Priobye 29, 97, 104, 241, 305, 353, 359, 362, 363
Pritobolye 233
Pritomie 239-241, 362, 363
Priuralye 13, 24, 78, 85, 118, 172, 217, 233, 242, 357, 358, 368, 371, 372
Prikhankai lowland 308
Black Sea region 165, 190, 217, 431
Prichulymie 362, 363
Puganshuy 324
Pustozersky fort 370
Puhal 324
Pyongyunjin 330
Phusun 218
Pennyolin 327
Pyasina 370
Pyatirechye 329
Razdolnoe 88, 90, 402
"Rachevo Settlement" 359 Rome 277
Horny town 370
Russian Empire see Russian State
Russian state see Russian state
Russia see Russian state RSFSR 104, 204, 210
Rubetsu see Kuibyshevsk Rusanova, b. 416
Russian Plain 40.
Russian state 6, 7, 9, 13, 14, 1о, 18. 19, 22, 23, 28, 30-33 48, 187 217, 305, 310, 353, 367-372, 381, 386, 395, 408, 410, 431
Rus' see Russian state
Ryrkaipy 415
Ryutino 111
Saadak-Terek 376
Saadakh yaabyt 392 Sagly 228, 231, 254
Sagly-Bazhi II (Saglyn mounds) 227, 229, 232
Saglyn Valley 228
Sain-Shand 141
Sakachi-Alyan 136, 137-140, 309
Salbyk 191
Salbyk mounds 195
Salekhard I, II 25, 234, 236
Samus, s. 100
Samus I. II, III 98, 100, 101, 169-172,178
Samuska 100
Sangar-Khaya 208
Sanga-Yuryakh tab. 38-39
Sangel-ky see Capercaillie River
Sunny Cape 61, 65, 66, 72, 216
Sanwei 404
Sanzhou 332
Saragash 25
Saralinsky district 297
Sargatka 237
Sargol 139
Sakhalin 11, 22, 28, 33, 128, 133, 154-156, 220, 221, 346, 401
Sayano-Altai Highlands (Sayano-Altai, Altai-Sayan Highlands) 117, 159,
166, 170, 186, 266, 270, 274, 275,285, 306, 362, 363
Sayanskaya HPP 28, 30
Sayansky prison 15
Sayans (Sayan Mountains, Sayan Range, Sayan Highlands) 14, 17, 18, 86, 165,
172, 252, 258, 266, 271, 285, 287,296, 299, 302, 377. 431
Svirsk 31, 109-111
Northern Asia 30, 44, 53, 59, 69, 71,76, 82, 94, 116, 121, 126, 127, 141,
North America tab. 38-39, 89, 91,
Northern Europe 26, tab. 38-39, 80,83, 112, 127, 136
North India 40
North Korea 307, 317
Northern Manchuria 14
Northern Mongolia 75, 274
Northern Scandinavia 211
Northern Sosva 25, 97, 234, 235, 369
Northern Yakutia 77, 222
Northern Japan 90, 310
Northern Trans-Urals 367
Northern Primorye 142
Northern Urals 234
Northern Black Sea region 218
Northern Altai 27, 360, 362, 363
Northern Kazakhstan 71, 303
Northern China 21, 38, 140, 253, 266,300, 307, 339
Arctic Ocean (Arctic Ocean. Arctic Sea) 5, 16, 47, 72,
76, 94, 126, 207, 211, 306, 370, 400, 409-411, 414, 415, 419
Northern Tibet 228 Northeast Asia 7, 9, 10, 22, 26, 33, 46, 73, 93, 131, 132, 150, 151,346, 408
North-Eastern Tuva 372
North-East Pomerania 370
North-East Kazakhstan 304
Northeast China 407, 408
Northwest Asia 20, 367, 370.
Northwest America 132
Northwestern Europe table 38-39
North West India 71
Northwestern Mongolia 21, 286, 296
Northwestern Yakutia 95
Northwestern Bohai 316
Saddle-shaped, cape 262
Selemdzha 401
Selenga 22, 44, 61, 65-70 72 84 104 106, 206, 211-216, 250, 266-
273, 284, 285, 292, 381, 384 387 428
Selenginsky district 15
Semyonovka 31
Semipyatnaya, pad 261, 264
Semirechye 288, 290
Senkina Shapka 143, 264
Sergeevna 148, 149, 308
Heart-Stone 415
Serovsky burial ground 31
Sibirka 365
Siberian land 369, 371
Siberian Khanate (Siberian “Yurt”) 13-15, 19, 358, 364-368, 371, 372,378
Siberia, village see Kashlyk Sivuysky Cape 343, 344
Siglan 345
Sidemi 21, 261, 262
Sikteeh 207, 209
Silla 315, 317
Silgumja 209
Xilaohe see Shara-muren
Sinara 238
Blue rocks 264, 265
Xing-Liao 317
Xingxiang 328
Xinjian 89
Xipinghe 335
Shirataki 90
Sireniki 32, 350, 420
Sikhote-Alin 87, 320
Scandinavia 14, 127, 211
Scythia 196, 217
Slavyanka 341
Sobakina, b. 117
Soviet Union (USSR) 5-7, 9, 28, 33, 34, tab. 38-39, 44, 47, 78, 205
Sogd 288, 290
United States of America (USA) 6, 8
Sokolchi 264
Salt lake (Harlone-kel) 66
Sortynya 97
Sosnovka 373
Sosva 354, 359
Sotnikovo 215
Sottinsky nasleg 121
Spafareva, Fr. 344
Mediterranean 40
Middle Trans-Urals 233
Middle Volga region 305, 372
Middle Amur region 72, 116, 145, 395, 401
Middle Irtysh region 237
Middle Ob region 234, 241, 306. 363
Central Siberian Plateau 72
Middle Amur 11, 33, 74, 145, 148-150, 264, 309, 323, 429
Middle Yenisei 62, 64, 79, 116-119, 169, 185, 187, 299. 360
Middle Irtysh 237, 304, 361, 364
Middle Urals 353, 355
Middle Chulym 241, 360
Central Asia 17, 22, 24, 38, 40, 41, 71, 77, 78, 82, 86, 96, 103, 104, 144, 165, 179, 185, 211, 217, 218, 228, 230, 233, 239, 242, 249 260, 266, 270, 277, 290, 293, 296, 303, 320. 376, 386, 428
Srednyaya Lena 72, 119-122, 124, 125, 391,401
Middle Ob 25
Middle capital (Bohai) 333
Sretensk 212
Splices 44
Stanovoy Ridge 401
Starodubskoe II 155, 156
Old Muslim (Tatar) cemetery (Tomsk) 98-100
Old Siktyakh 122
Arrows 119
Suban 337
Subin 325
Sug-Khol 287
Suji 242, 284
Suzuhe, settlement 264
Suzuhe, b. 264
Suifun 88, 136, 143, 261, 264, 324, 326-329, 331, 332, 341, 342, 402
Suiyuan 184, 270
Sulino 249
Sumangin 122
Sungari 72, 251, 308, 316, 317, 320, 322, 324, 403, 405-407
Suruktah Haya 125
Susu site 220
Suchan 21, 45, 73, 142, 145
Suchu 131, 133, 135, 137. 139
Shim (Chirombu) 395
Syr-Darya 40, 185
Cheese chaatas 258
Sagenut burial ground 382, 383
Xia see Tangut kingdom
Xianbi 251
Xiande 316
Xianzhou 322
Tavda 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 368
Tagarskii, Fr. 18
Tagarskoye Lake 25
Tagisken 183
Tajikistan 78
Tadusha 87, 88. 90, 91, 148
Thailanl 75
Taygonos 344, 416
Taimyr Peninsula (Taimyr) 94,
Talitsky, settlement 71 Tambar 258
Tanamas see Commander Islands Tangut Kingdom (Xia) 333. 338, 339
Tannu-ola 268
Tanyurer 412
Gaowen 403
Tapar-vosh 355
Tartas 239
Tarukisi 90
Tarja 134, 153
Taseeva, b. 20, 379
Tasty-butak 174, 178
Tas-Khaza 168
Tatar Strait 220
Tauy Mountain 344
Tashatkansky town 366
Tashkent 40, 179
Tashtyk 25, 258
Teletskoye, lake 376
Tere-Khol 286
Tes 24, 161
Tetyukhe, bay 32, 262
Tetyukhe, b. 134, 141, 142
Tetyukhe (Tetyukha settlement) 142, 144, 153, 218
Tetyukhinsky Cape (hill) 141
Teshik-Tash 133
Tibet 63, 71
Tibetan Plateau 40
Tigil 415, 416, 421
Tiligul 249
Pacific Ocean 5, 9, 16, 33, 71, 76, 91, 94, 96, 145, 154, 343, 409. 411, 414,
415, 427, 428, 431
Toba (Taibo) 309
Toba Way 316
Tobol 237, 238, 354, 358, 361, 364, 367, 368, 378
Tobolsk 13, 18, 237, 358
Tobolsk district 355
Todaiji 319
Toyon Aryy 392
Tola 59, 266-268, 273
Tologoy 215
Tommot 122
Tomsk 9, 18, 61, 98-100, 170, 172, 178, 179, 186, 239, 361, 376
Tomsk region 29, 360, 361
TOMSK BURIAL 18, 98, 99, 204
Volume 13, 14, 17, 101, 170, 179, 186,
204, 241, 306, 361, 379
Tone tour 365
Torgalyk 375
Toyanov town 361
"Trumpet" 117, 119, 204, 205
Tuba (Ulsa) 189, 281, 298, 299, 378
Tubansky ulus 378
Tuva 8, 11, 28, 30, 71, 194, 215, 227-233, 253-257, 266, 267, 269 272, 274-277, 281-291, 372-376, 429
Tugozvonovskoe burial 303
Tukin (Dugin) 270
Tumangan (Tyumen-ula) 142 264, 402, 407
Tumat-taiga 373
Tumnin 401
Tuman 328
Tunguska Nizhnyaya 123, 395
Tunguska Middle (Podkamennaya) 123.
Tunka 17, 384
Tunkinsky region 292
Tunkinsky district 383
Tongjiang 323
Tuoi-Khaya 123-125
Tura 304, 353-355, 358, 364, 366
Turgai 361, 362
Turgai burial ground 362
Turkmenistan 78
Turukta 121
Turukhan 395
Turpan see Koachan
Turfan oasis 89
Tuyakhta 227
Tongzhejin 330
Tym 154, 241, 359
Tyr (Dkli, Teli) 405, 406
Teli see Tyr
Tyumen region 6, 7
Tyumen Khanate 364, 368
Tyumen 96, 304, 364
Tyumen-ula see Tumangan
Tien Shan 40, 268, 303
Ubsanur 268, 375
Weighting, r. 221
Uda 44, 61, 216
Uzun-both 190, 195
Uybat 18, 19, 166, 281. 298
Uibat steppe 19
Uibat chaatas 25, 300
Uyghur state (Uyghuria, Uyghur Khaganate) 286, 317
Ukraine 78, 428
Ukulan 209
Ulalinka 41-43
Ulaanbaatar 61, 216, 268, 273
Ulan-Ude 9, 10, 31, 40, 212, 215
Ulan-Khada 21, 26, 118, 204
Ulsa see Tuba
Ulug-Khem see Upper Yenisei Ulug-Khem district 275, 373
Ulug-Khorum 228
Ulu-Kem see Upper Yenisei
Unga 31, 293-295
Unginskoe settlement 293, 294
Walba, lake 125
Walba, parking lot 122
Walbinsky kyrdal 126
Ural Mountains (Ural, Ural Range) 5, 9, 10, 13, 14, 37, 69, 71, 72,
78, 85, 94, 96, 98, 103, 104, 180, 236, 38. 239. 252. 305. 353, 354, 366-
369, 372, 428. 429. 430, 431
Urilsky, Fr. 33
Harvest 44, 78, 79
Urumqi 268
Urungu 268
Uriankhai (Orankai) 407
Uriankhai region 22, 27, 244 245
Usolka 379
Ussuri 91, 136, 137, 150, 252, 264 308, 320, 324, 406
Ussuriysk 21, 22, 32, 73, 74 136, 141-143, 145, 264, 318, 319, 341, 342
Ussuri Bay 261, 262
Ustinovka 87, 148
Ust-Aldansky district 121
Ust-Belaya (Angara basin) tab. 38-39, 80, 82-84
Ust-Belsky burial ground (Chukotka) 151, 210, 221-223
Ust-Erba 178
Ust-Il 213
Ust-Kanskaya cave 41, 44, 71
Ust-Kurenga 97
Ust-Kureng burial 104
Ust-Kuyum 161
Ust-Kyakhta 65
Ust-Maya 122
Ust-Poluy 234-237, 354
Ust-Polui settlement 234
Ust-Seminskaya site 44, 70
Ust-Sobakinskaya site 203, 205
Ust-Talkin 294 Ust-Tesi 25
Ust-Timpton 122
Ust-Udinsky burial ground 31
Ust-Tsilemskaya Sloboda 370
Ustyug 367, 368
Lost 327
Utesiki 221
Utu-Elga 293, 294
Wuhuan 251
Wushiji 405
Ushkanka 251
Ushkovskoye, lake table 38-39, 93, 153
Uelensky burial ground 347, 349, 350
Fedorovka 249
Fedyaevo 44
Fergana 288, 290
Filimoshki 41, 43
Finland 236, 355
Fominskaya, parking 44
Fofanove 201, 211, 212
France 6, 53, 54, 58
Furdanchen 342
Fuyu 313, 315, 316
Fairbanks 89
Khabarovsk 91, 92, 134, 136, 138, 264. 407
Khabsagai 381
Hai Dongshengguo see Bohai
Haichuan 329
Khakassia 24, 165, 282
Khakass Autonomous Region 25
Khakass-Minusinsk Basin see Minusinsk Basin
Khalkha 248, 376, 387
Hamju 330
Khangai 268, 271
Khanka 74, 91, 141, 219, 264, 407
Khara Aryy 392
Khara-Balgasun (Kharabalgas) 20, 302
Khara-Busun 213
Kharazargay 292
Haranarin 268
Kharahorin see Karakorum
Harbin 407
Kharinskaya Sopka 219, 220
Harlone-kel see Salt Lake
Hariyalaah 391, 392
Khasansky district 319
Khaskhan 403
Khatanga 94
Khatyn Aryy 392
Khem see Yenisei
Khashkhay 296
Khemchik 268, 287, 289, 291, 376
Khingan (Khingan Mountains) 217, 251, 401, 430
Khinskaya pad 82, 84-86, 118
Hirhira 380
Khirkhirinsky town 379, 380
Khodzhikent cave 40
Huiningfu see Upper Capital
Hokkaido 90, 140, 156, 315
Honshu 315, 346
Khorinsk 61
Horo-Yurege 122
Huai 334, 338
Huaihuan 270
Huaiyuan 318
Huaiyang 338
Yellow River see Yellow. Khubsugul 268
Hulawen 404 Hulan 407
Hooligan 403
Hulum-Sunt 97
Hunan 339
Hungari 138
Hunchun 328
Hunyongjiang 403
Khurhabira see Mudanjiang Hebei 339
Heisha see Kara-Kum
Helan (Helan-fu Hailan) 32, 135, 332, 337, 403 ) ^~
Helan, b. 330 Henan 333, 334 Hengtei 268
Caizhou 340
Central Asia 21 38 40, 41, 62, 63, 66, 70, 71, 76, 82 86, 89, 90, 93, 116, 127, 136, 210 211, 215, 227, 228, 232, 233, 248 257 266, 267, 269, 270, 272, 274, 280 281, 284-286, 288, 293, 295-301 303, 340, 376, 381, 428, 430, 431
Central Europe tab. 38-39, 43
Central Manchuria 325
Central Mongolia 21
Central Tuva 228
Central Chukotka 94
Central Yakutia 69, 77, 95 123, 388, 392
Central Altai 30, 227
Central Kazakhstan 71, 183, 184 304
Central Tien Shan 179
Jian-gun (Gegun, Kyrgun) 296, 297
Jianzhou see Dunhua
Jyargulu 405
Tsigenovsky (Sagenutsky) ulus 381
Cyclodrome (Lokomotiv) 31, 115
Tsingala yurts
Tsiulatan 405
Chaa-Khol 289, 374
Chaa-Khol district 275, 373
Chalagan 403
Changboshan (Changbaishan) 308, 309, 320
Chaoxian 313
Chapigou 145, 319
Chapel Mountain 381
Chastinskaya 61, 66, 72
Frequent, pad 31, 82, 84-86, 118
Chatyr-Kul 179
Chaun Mountain 346
Chaun Bay 412, 414
Chegitun 350, 351
Chekurovka 126
Chelyabinsk 239
Chelyabinsk region 238, 239
Cheremushnik 44, 65, 81
Chernigovka 74
Chernovaya, r. 165, 166, 168, 169
Chernovaya VI 161, 164
Black Sea 217, 249, 303
"Black Sands" see Kara-Kum
Black Iyus 377
Four-pillar, about. 350, 351
Czechoslovakia 58
Zhaozhou 403
Zhen 312, 313
Zhenhua 323
Zhoukoudian 75
Chikaevo 221
Chikoy 44, 242
Chimga-tura 364, 366
Chinyaevskoye settlement 365
Circuo 123
Chirovoe, lake 221, 222
Chirombu see Sym
Chita 40, 94, 214
Chita region 215, 379, 380
Chichka-ul 361
Chona 123, 124
Cheongpyeong 329
Chokh-chur-Muran 77
Chugai-kuz (Zongcai-Shan) 272
Weirdos 238
Chukotka District 346
Chukotka Peninsula (Chukotka) 11, 17, 28, 32 33, 46, 93, 151, 210, 221, 223,
346, 350. 412, 416, 417
Chukchi Sea 412, 413
Chukotka coast 222
Chukochia, r. 415
Chulym 16, 19, 29, 186, 241-258, 359-362, 377, 378
Chulym-Yenisen basin 187
Chulym-Yenisei Plain 62
Churumal 374
Chusovaya 71, 354, 357
Cheoncheongang 323
Chasty-yag 97
Shagonar 287, 289, 373
Shandong 315, 338, 339
Shanxi 334
Shanjin see Upper Capital
Shara-muren (Xilaohe) 141, 268
Shelagsky, cape 411, 415
Sheremetyevo 136, 137, 139
Shiducha 405
Shilka 116, 212, 214, 216, 268, 307, 309
Shilkinskaya cave 116
Shilkinsky plant 116
Shikhshit 384
Shishkina 33, 35, 65, 113, 153, 295, 296
Shishkinskie rocks 381, 388
Schmidt, cape 415
Shokhtoy 294
Shuaibin 318
Shui-dada 403
Shuidongou 61
Shunnyuzhi 322
Ymyyakhtaakh, lake. 121
Ymyyakhtaakh, parking lot 122
Evoron 130, 140
Edzin-gol 268
Ekven burial ground 347
Ekichuverveem 350
Expeditions, bay 261
Elegest 373-375
Elyygythyn 151, 221
Enurmin 415
Erdene-Tzu 260
South, r. 71, 367
Southeast Asia 40 41 73-75, 91, 121, 201
South-Eastern Tuva 373
Southwestern Turkmenistan 96
Ugra Land (Ugra) 20, 367, 369
Yuedeyskaya site 120
South Asia 43, 75, 77
South Manchuria 403
South Sosva 355
South Tuva 278
Southern France 49
South Yakutia 123
Southern Transbaikalia 248
Southern Trans-Urals 179, 233
South Primorye 87, 402
Southern Altai 228, 275, 362
South Oleniy Island 125, 127
Apple Ridge 401
Yaya burial ground 100
Yakitikiveem 94, 221
Yaxart 183
Yakutsk 9, 77, 120-122, 185, 207-209, 388
Yakut ASSR (Yakutia) 7, 11, 28, 31, 76, 116, 119-127, 148, 153, 207-
211, 218, 221, 291, 292, 345, 347, 352, 385, 387, 388, 390-392, 394,
Yakut province 23
Yakut region 393
“Yakutsky vzvoz” 388 I
Yakut-Vilyui depression 77
Yalu 320, 323, 324
Yamal tab. 38-39, 353
Yana 387, 392, 410
Yandogai 347
Yanzhan 314
Yanchihe 319
Japan 7, 8, 73, 83, 90, 93, 134, 140, 145, 315, 319, 320
Japanese islands 90, 91, 132-134, 142, 144, 145, 156, 158, 265, 319, 402
Sea of Japan 87, 141, 154, 307, 317, 323
Constitutional norms and international legal provisions relating to indigenous minorities are implemented through federal legislation. The Federal Law of April 30, 1999 “On Guaranteeing the Rights of Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Federation” is of basic importance. It includes norms that connect the traditional way of life of small peoples with environmental management, recognize the presence of their ancestral habitat as a historically established area within the boundaries of which people carry out their livelihoods (clauses 2 and 3 of Article 1) and oblige public authorities to ensure the rights of small peoples peoples for distinctive socio-economic and cultural development, protection of their original habitat, traditional way of life and management (Article 4). Federal Law of July 29, 2000 “On the general principles of organizing communities of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation” grants members of indigenous communities the right to use objects of flora and fauna, minerals and other natural resources for economic purposes and traditional crafts resources (Part 2, Article 12).
Relations related to the right of indigenous minorities to lands and other resources are most fully regulated by the Federal Law of May 7, 2001 “On the territories of traditional environmental management of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation.” Within the meaning of this law, the allocation of territories for traditional natural resource management is an organizational and legal form of realization by small peoples of the right to land and related rights.
It should also be noted that income (with the exception of wages for hired workers) received by members of duly registered clan and family communities of small peoples of the North engaged in traditional economic sectors from the sale of products received by them as a result of traditional types of fishing is not taxed on the basis of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation of July 24, 2002, part 2 of article 217.
A number of federal natural resource laws contain additional rules affecting the interests of indigenous minorities in the use of land and other natural resources. Among them, we can highlight the Federal Law of June 19, 1996 “On the fundamentals of state regulation of the socio-economic development of the North of the Russian Federation”, “On specially protected natural areas” of July 12, 1996, “On fauna” of April 24, 1995 g., “On the subsoil” dated March 3, 1995, etc.
Federal regulation of the use of land and other natural resources carried out by indigenous minorities is supplemented by regional legislation. The Koryak Autonomous Okrug has adopted a regulatory act on the territories of traditional natural resource management. In the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, on February 3, 1999, the District Duma adopted the law “On state regulation of marine hunting in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.” The legislative framework of the Kamchatka region regarding fishing and marine mammal hunting is represented by the laws of the Kamchatka region “On the fauna of the Kamchatka region”, “On fishing and aquatic biological resources in the Kamchatka region”.
The legislation of the Koryak Autonomous Okrug regarding the rights of national enterprises is more developed than in the Kamchatka region. In 1998, a resolution of the Duma of the Koryak Autonomous Okrug approved the regulation “On the national enterprise and the main directions of traditional types of folk crafts.” In the same year, the law of the Koryak Autonomous Okrug “On Fisheries in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug” was adopted, in which the main principle indicates “the priority of the indigenous peoples of the North in the use of fish resources along with other natural resources, which together form the basis of their livelihoods in their places of residence.” .
At the regional level, the problem of Russian old-timers in Siberia is also noted in areas where the indigenous and newcomer populations have been living next door since the 17th - 18th centuries and whose dependence on the natural resources of the territories is almost equal. The problem of Russian old-timers is solved in the context of nationality: for example, the Kamchadals of the Kamchatka and Magadan regions, whom many scientists and residents themselves considered as an ethnographic group of Russians, were recently recognized as a separate people of the North, thanks to many years of appeals from residents to the legislative institutions of these regions. They were able to prove their “rootedness” on this land and gain legislative access to resources and benefits for their use.
The guarantors of the rights of indigenous minorities in the Russian Federation are the Human Rights Commission under the President of the Russian Federation, the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Russian Federation, and the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation. They guarantee not only the equality of peoples and equality of human rights and freedoms, but also special rights in the socio-economic, cultural and other spheres.
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The lesson is held in primary school (4th grade) after studying the topics: “Our region in the distant past”, “Main activities of the indigenous population of the region”, “Life of indigenous peoples”
Lesson type: repeating and generalizing.
Form of conduct: team game"History Experts"
Target: repeat, summarize, systematize the material covered, basic terms, concepts, ability to work with a map. Continue developing group interaction skills.
Equipment: PC, multimedia projector, screen, multimedia presentation, cards with letters printed on them, lotto barrels, illustrations of animals and household items of the peoples of the region, local history literature, cards with tasks, map of the settlement of the peoples of the region.
During the classes
1. The teacher names the topic and purpose of the lesson, informs that the game involves 2-3 teams who have come up with names for themselves.
2. Warm-up, during which you need to remember the names of the indigenous peoples of the North. Answer: Evenks, Evens, Yukagirs, Koryaks, Kereks, Chukchi, Yakuts, Eskimos. We check the answers with the map presented on Slide 3.
3. First stage of the game. Teams are given cards with letters printed on them. From the proposed set of letters (see Appendix 1), it is necessary to create words corresponding to one of three topics: “Animals of the north in the past and present,” “Main occupations of the peoples of the region,” “Tools of indigenous peoples.” Five minutes are allotted to complete the task. For each correctly composed word, the team receives 1 point. On Slide 4 There are pictures illustrating each of the three topics. Each image has a hyperlink to the corresponding Slide (8, 9, 10) with a list of letters. This is done so that other teams can earn extra points while checking answers by making up words on the opponent's topic - one for the correct answer. The BACK button leads again to Slide 4.
“Animals of the North in the past and present”
Set of letters: m, a, n, t, o, l, s, c, g, p, r, e, d, i.
Answer: mammoth, rhinoceros, arctic fox, fox.
“The main occupations of the peoples of the region”
Set of letters: o, p, x, e, s, t, l, b, s, a, b, c, i, c.
Answer: hunting, fishing, gathering.
“Indigenous Tools”
A set of letters: b, a, g, l, p, u, r, n, k, o, e, m, b, i.
Answer: decoy, bola, spear, harpoon, lasso, bow.
4. Second stage of the game. Each team receives the text (see Appendix 2), finds and corrects errors. The team that finishes the task first reads out loud the completion of the task. The rest are awarded points based on the number of tasks completed by the time of verification. Ten minutes are allotted to complete the task. You can get a total of 6 points for this task.
“Suddenly, the morning silence of the yaranga was broken by the ringing of an alarm clock. “It’s time to get up,” thought the owner of the yaranga, “because a big hunt awaits me.” That is why today the owner of the yaranga prepared him a hearty breakfast: semolina porridge, coffee and sandwiches with cheese and sausage. During breakfast, the radio announced the opening of a mammoth hunt. The owner of the yaranga was delighted, because what his family would eat depended on how the hunt went today. “We need to check the bow, arrows, swords, guns and cartridges - is everything in order?” - thought the hunter. “Where is my sheepskin coat?” - he asked after breakfast. But now all the training has come to an end. The family wished the owner of the yaranga a successful hunt.”
[Gornostaeva I.V. Morning in the hunter's yaranga // History of the native land: games in elementary school. – Magadan: SMU Publishing House, 2003. – P. 50.]
Errors: 1. The first inhabitants of our region did not use an alarm clock. 2. Semolina porridge, coffee and sandwiches with cheese and sausage were not the food products of the first inhabitants of our region. 3. Radio was not a household item for the first inhabitants of our region. 4. The owner of the yaranga could not hear the message on the radio, because it did not exist in those distant times. 5. Ancient hunters did not use guns or cartridges. 6. Ancient hunters did not wear sheepskin coats.
5. Third stage of the game. Historical lotto. The teams are one by one asked to answer the questions that fall on the numbers of the lotto barrel. For a correct answer, the team receives 2 points, for an addition - 1 point. Teams answer questions one by one. On Slide 6 The order of numbers is presented, each number corresponds to a specific question of our lotto. The teacher's assistant, who controls the presentation depending on what number appears on the barrel, shows the question itself and then the answer to it. (Slides 11 to 40). Icon Sun on the slide with the question there is a hyperlink to the Slide with the corresponding answer. Icon Flower on the Answer Slide leads back to Slide 6 and so on.
Historical lotto questions:
1. The material from which the tools of ancient people were made. Answer: stone.
2. Single boat. Answer: kayak.
3. A concentration of walruses on the seashore. Answer: rookery.
4. Rock carvings carved with stone. Answer: petroglyphs.
5. Multi-person boat for group hunting. Answer: canoe.
6. Large animal of the Ice Age. Answer: mammoth.
7. Marine mammal of the order Pinnipeds. Answer: walrus.
8. The largest sea animal. Answer: whale.
9. A place to sleep and rest in a yaranga. Answer: canopy.
10. A long stick with a bone tip for catching fish. Answer: prison.
11. Portable dwelling of the nomadic peoples of the North. Answer: yaranga.
12. Light sleighs harnessed to dogs or reindeer. Answer: sledges.
13. A lamp in which fat or oil burns. Answer: fatty.
14. Dwelling of the settled population of our region. Answer: semi-dugout.
15. Outer fur shirt among the peoples of the North. Answer: kukhlyanka.
6. Teacher's final words. The teacher awards a certificate to the winning team and its captain, names the scores and comments on them.
Literature
- Gornostaeva I.V. Morning in the hunter’s yaranga // History of the native land: games in elementary school. – Magadan: SMU Publishing House, 2003. – P. 50.
- History of the native land: handouts for primary school. – Magadan, 2002. – 26 p.
- History of Chukotka from ancient times to the present day / Ed. N. N. Dikova. – M.: Mysl, 1989. – 492 p.