Language game in advertising text. The concept of “language game” § Game techniques allow you to create advertising text that can attract the attention of a potential buyer
The term "language game" belongs to the Austrian philosopher and logician, Ludwig Wittgenstein. Before considering the concept of a “language game,” Ludwig Wittgenstein thinks about the very concept of a game. He writes: “Consider, for example, the processes that we call “games.” I mean games with cards, with a ball, wrestling, etc. What do they all have in common?<. >. looking at them, you do not see something common, inherent in all of them, but you notice similarities, kinship, and, moreover, a whole series of such common features.<. >. we could go through many, many types of games, watching the similarities between them come and go.<. >. we see a complex network of similarities, overlapping and intertwining with each other." The philosopher calls such similarities "family" - "And I will say that "games" form a family." Wittgenstein talks about the vagueness of the concept of "game", about the impossibility of defining general characteristics and properties of the game as a whole; what is inherent in one game does not at all fit the description of another: victory and defeat do not take place in an ordinary toss of a ball, and dexterity and luck are not inherent in the game of chess. It is impossible to define a universal set of characteristics that described exactly all games in general: “You really don’t know what you mean by the word game,” says Wittgenstein.
According to Wittgenstein, “language game” implies not only entertaining activities. Thus, L. Wittgenstein noticed that people communicate not only with declarative sentences, they ask, thank, give orders, beg, curse, make jokes, and so on. Thus, he comes to the conclusion that there are countless types of sentences, and all of this is included in human language: "the uses of all that we call "signs", "words", "sentences" are infinitely diverse. And this multiplicity does not represent something stable, given once and for all; on the contrary, new types of language arise, or, one might say, new language games, while others become outdated and forgotten.<. >The term "language game" is intended to emphasize that speaking a language is a component of activity or a form of life."
Thus, according to L. Wittgenstein, all human life is a collection language games: “A language game” I will also call a single whole: language and the actions with which it is intertwined." According to this conclusion, the term "language game" acquires a broader, philosophical meaning (as opposed to a narrow linguistic one). Wittgenstein believed that philosophy finds its roots in the complex labyrinths of language and represents "listening", "peering" into its work, that in linguistic realities lies the abyss of human problems. L. Wittgenstein compares human language with a city: "Our language can be considered as an ancient city: a labyrinth of small streets and squares, old and new houses, houses with extensions from different eras; and all this is surrounded by many new areas with straight streets of a regular layout and standard houses." And further: "Imagining some language means imagining some form of life." Thus, reality itself, perceived through the prism of language, is a set of language games , thus, many initial human actions can be called a game, for example, traditional ceremonies and magical rituals are of a playful nature.Also, a game is communication between people, which can occur in three ways:
1. Game within the framework of non-verbal (non-verbal) communication, for example, sports games;
2. A game within the framework of verbal (verbal) communication, for example, language games like crosswords and puzzles;
3. A game that combines verbal and non-verbal communication, such as dramatic performance.
The principle of functioning of a verbal game can be described in the words of I. Huizinga: “When playing, the speech-making spirit continually jumps from the realm of the material to the realm of thought. Every abstract expression is a speech image, every speech image is nothing more than a play on words.” And further: “We would not like to delve into the lengthy question here to what extent the means at our disposal are fundamentally in the nature of the rules of the game. Is there always a certain tacit agreement at play in logic in general and in syllogisms in particular? that the validity of terms and concepts is recognized here in the same way as is the case for chess pieces and fields of the chessboard?" According to Huizinga's understanding, any abstract word, or combination of such words, can be called a verbal game, since the game exists at the level of speech production. That is, it is embedded in the process of creating a linguistic form.
According to V.Z. Sannikov, a language game is a certain (comic) deviation from the norm, something unusual. The author also draws attention to the fact that this deviation from the norm must be clearly understood and intentionally allowed by the speaker (writer); the listener (reader), in turn, must understand that “this is said this way on purpose” in order not to evaluate the corresponding expression as an error, thereby he accepts this game and tries to reveal the deep intention of the author. In other words, a language game is the deliberate use of the tropical and figurative capabilities of language.
But it is also necessary to draw a clear boundary between the ideas of a “language game” and a “language joke,” which is a “verbal form of the comic.” Undoubtedly, the language game is mainly aimed at achieving a comic effect, but an utterance acquires a comic coloring only if it does not evoke other, stronger emotions that prevent the creation of a comic effect. In our opinion, we can quite definitely speak of a language joke as a type of language game aimed solely at creating a comic effect. While a language game is a kind of manipulation of language, and achieving comedy is far from the only goal of such manipulation. From the same book by V.Z. Sannikov, let us give an example when a language game is used not with the goal of making fun, but with the intention of convincing judges of a person’s innocence, thereby saving him:
"One St. Petersburg lawyer (F.N. Plevako?) spoke in the case of the murder of a boy. The killer (25-year-old hunchback) admitted that he killed the boy who teased him. And the lawyer obtained an acquittal for the killer! He structured his speech like this." Gentlemen! Gentlemen! Gentlemen! Gentlemen!." - and so on for several minutes. And the reaction of the audience changed - first slight bewilderment, then laughter, then indignation, shouts: "This is a mockery! Get out!" And then the lawyer finished his speech: "So, gentlemen. You became furious because I repeated a polite address to you. And my client listened to people shouting “Humpback” to him for 25 years, endlessly reminding him of his misfortune.”
Here, in our opinion, we are talking about a language game, but not about a language joke. Thus, we can come to the conclusion that different expressions (forms) of thoughts lead to different results. Any speaking in a language, in which more or less attention is paid to the form of speech, will be a language game, only the goals of this game can be very different, and depending on the specific task of speaking, the type of language game can be determined. It should be noted that for an adequate understanding of the language game by the addressee, the author must take into account the presence of certain knowledge of the recipient, as well as the cultural space in which communication takes place.
It should also be noted that one of the most important characteristics of a language game is the pluralism of word meanings. Indeed, the main, most common type of language game - a pun - is built on the use of lexical polysemy or homonymy. For a language game, resources of all language levels are used (albeit not equally):
Phonetics, graphics, spelling. Parodist Evgeny Vensky, parodying Andrei Bely, uses phonetic means - repetition of one sound:
How powerful are you?
Skinny, kashchey those in cabbage soup! Like a mother-in-law, skinny of power.
You are the futility of beauty.
A comic impression is made by A. Chekhov’s playfully hysterical address in a letter to his brother Alexander: “Bratt!” Also interesting are the humorous signatures, for example the signature of one of the Poltoratskys, combining letters and numbers: 1/2tsky, or the signature of the translator Fyodor Fedorovich Fidler - F.F. F. or: F3 (eff cubed).
Morphology. Sometimes language jokes play on (and thereby emphasize) the “inviolability” of a word (word form). Only as a joke can it be cut into pieces:
Write me something about Karamzin, oh, oh (A. Pushkin).
[From anecdotes about the absent-minded Professor Kablukov]: Leaving the classroom, the professor says: “The next lecture will take place on Tuesday,” and then shouts at the door: “nick!”
The dissection of the word anxiety is wittily played out by N.S. Leskov in the story Midnight Owls: Nikolai Ivanovich was simpler with the people, but what a passion he was: he was constantly in a state of excitement, and was always in a hurry to solve the problem everywhere.
Boris Pilnyak successfully uses this technique in his novel The Naked Year. In Moscow, during the Civil War, a person, reading a store sign in a warehouse: “Switches, batteries,” understands it in the spirit of revolutionary intransigence (“To some - tators, and to others - lators”) and is indignant at the inequality: “See, they’re cheating here too.” ordinary people!"
Sometimes the absence of one or another member of the paradigm is played up. On the difficulty of forming the form it will give birth. plural case numbers of the word poker (poker? poker? poker?) M. Zoshchenko, as you know, constructed a whole story (we recall that authoritative reference books by A.A. Zaliznyak, N.A. Eskova and others clearly recommend the form of pokers here, indicating however, to its difficulty).
The ignorant understanding of foreign proper names in - a, - i as denoting female persons is often played out:
Just think, Spinoza has been found!
Senechka. Maria Sergeevna, I loved you without impudence, politely, like Dante loved his Petrarch (V. Shkvarkin).
The comic effect is produced by the formation of a comparative or superlative degree from words that do not have it: May you be the devil. Yes, our devils / All devils / A hundred times devils (A. Tvardovsky. Vasily Terkin).
[Children's conversation]:
Dad himself told me.
My mother herself told me.
But dad is the same as mom. Dad is much the same (K. Chukovsky. From two to five).
Playing on the person category of a verb involves using one person instead of another. A. Chekhov liked to use this technique. Here are examples from his letters to his wife, O.L. Knipper-Chekhova, where he jokingly talks about himself in the third person: I kiss you deeply. Don't forget your husband. He’s angry, he’s fighting; Don’t forget your husband, remember him at least once a day. Hugs to you, my drunkard. Your husband wears threadbare trousers, but doesn't drink.
Another example is playing on the category of the perfect form of verbs indicating the short duration of an action:
Why are you still blowing your trumpet, young man?
You would rather lie in a coffin, young man (O. Mandelstam).
In “normal” usage, if, for example, you can lie down in a bed and lie in it, then you can only lie in a coffin.
Word formation. A language game may consist, in particular, of violating restrictions on the formation of possessive adjectives. Wed: His [Kerensky] eyes are Bonaparte and the color of a protective jacket (V. Mayakovsky).
Another widespread phenomenon is the non-standard use of augmentative and diminutive suffixes. M.E. really liked this technique. Saltykov-Shchedrin to discredit his heroes. Wed: But now he becomes an official. Is he not a worthy vessel, or is he not a despicable vessel? Sorry, little vessel! with what trepidation he takes a piece of paper in his hand, sharpens a feather with a knife, how his miniature imagination works, how his tiny thought works, inventing<. >Each expression conveys an intricate relationship. Here are a few more examples from the works of Saltykov-Shchedrin: Designers; poets and poets; naughty boy; naughty; chatterbox.
The use of Russian word-forming prefixes and suffixes in foreign proper names and geographical names has a similar effect. Here's a joke - a gloomy political prophecy for the year 2000: Headline in the New York Times: Collective farmers of Texas, Michigan and the Mississippi exceeded the plan for spring sowing.
Syntax. Some syntactic constructions allow for double understanding, and this allows them to be used in a language game:
“What are you doing there, Manichka, reading so loudly!?” - “History, mom.” - “So read to yourself.” - “Yes, in History, mommy, nothing is written about me” (Satyricon magazine).
Some gentleman, a participant in the funeral procession, turned to a neighbor: “Will you tell me who the deceased is?” - “I don’t know for sure. I think it’s the one that rides in the front carriage” (Jules Renard).
An adverbial phrase may indicate the simple simultaneity of unrelated events, but it may also contain a rationale for what is described in the first part of the sentence, cf.:
[Family scene]: "I was a fool to marry you!" - “Yes, but I was so carried away with you then that I didn’t notice it.”
In some cases, a joke is based on a deliberate violation of the principles of word compatibility:
Left by train, returned as a donkey.
Today, by evening horse, I am returning to my dear Odessa (the film The Elusive Avengers).
The boy asks: Where is this girl’s mother? (based on the model: Where is the head of this doll?).
Introductory words and phrases such as you see, you understand, etc., it would seem, are appropriate for any address to you. There are, however, specific conditions when their use leads to a comic effect, for example at a funeral:
Sleep well, dear comrade! The memory of you, you see, will remain in our hearts for a long time. Got it, no?
Some syntactic constructions assume the plural form of the noun included in them, which can only be replaced by a singular form only as a joke:
Under Alexander I, official court announcements invited people of such and such ranks, as well as noble persons of both sexes, to receptions. Zhukovsky did not have a specific rank in his service at court. He joked that on solemn holidays and days of court appearances he was a noble person of both sexes (Russian literary anecdote).
Verbs denoting the physical actions of specific creatures (run, walk, walk) are reluctant to combine with the designations of geographical units, and the larger the unit, the stronger the sense of unusualness:
But daddy and mommy fell asleep in the evening,
And Tanechka and Vanechka are running to Africa [.]
They walk along Africa,
Date figs are picked (K. Chukovsky. Barmaley).
Stylistics. The use of special terminology - sports, military, scientific and technical, etc. - produces a comic impression. when describing ordinary everyday situations:
At an athlete’s wedding, a woman addresses a young man:
Excuse me, are you the groom?
No, I was eliminated in the quarterfinals.
Hey, Slavs, from the Kuban, / From the Don, from the Volga, from the Irtysh, / Occupy the heights in the bathhouse, / Seek a foothold! (A. Tvardovsky. Vasily Terkin)
[Declaration of love from a mathematics student]: Natasha, dear, desired! / The triangle of passions has wounded me / The multifaceted love has seized me (M. Isakovsky. Formula of Love).
A comic effect can be created by parodying style features:
The hunter Chertteznaev returned to his native camp with rich booty. Imagine the surprise of the 60-year-old hunter when it turned out that the fur of the two foxes he killed was artificial! This is not the first case of foxes with artificial fur being shot in Yakutia (Literaturnaya Gazeta, page 13).
A great comic charge is contained in the so-called macaroni speech, where words and forms from different languages are mixed, cf.:
Ardalyon Pankratievich (beet nose, dull eyes) entered the room and (in a sour voice):
Mother, bring me a glass.
Ardalyon's maidens became alarmed, nodded their bodies, and engaged in politeness and conversion:
Pourquois, Vater, are you drinking vodka early in the morning? (A. Fleet, parody of Peter I by A. Tolstoy).
The comic effect is created here by mixing three languages - Russian (colloquial-archaic), German and French.
Many authors like to play not with individual words or combinations of words, but with entire texts. A simple combination of two texts (completely neutral or even poetically sublime!) can lead to ambiguity and produce a comic effect, as happens in the story by N. Teffi, where lines from two poems by Pushkin are combined:
Pushkin. was inspired by his nanny to create his best works. Remember how Pushkin spoke about her: “My decrepit dove. My decrepit dove. My treasures are hidden at your bottom.” “Pardon,” the young man intervened. - it's like going to an inkwell.
Pragmatics. There are general patterns of communication that should guide all speakers, no matter what language they speak. One of these postulates is the postulate of information content (“Tell something new”). Pushkin, violating it, achieves a comic effect in the following (completely uninformative) address to Pavel Vyazemsky: My soul Pavel, / Keep to my rules: / Love this, that, / Don’t do that. / It seems clear. / Goodbye, my beautiful one.
Another postulate is the postulate of truth or sincerity (“Tell the truth”). Breaking it is also unusual and can sometimes lead to misunderstandings. Let us remember the scene when Pinocchio with the cat Basilio and the fox Alice come to the tavern:
The owner of the tavern rushed out to meet the guests<. >
It wouldn’t hurt us to have at least a dry crust snack,” said the fox.
“At least they’d treat me to a crust of bread,” the cat repeated.<. >
“Hey, master,” Buratino said importantly, “give us three crusts of bread.”
Cheerful, witty Pinocchio is joking with you, master,” the fox giggled.
Meanwhile, Pinocchio was not joking, he strictly followed the postulate of truth (sincerity). He did not take into account that the Cat and the Fox (like all of us) tend to exaggerate (or understate), cf.: I told you a million times.; Can I talk to you for a second? We are accustomed to such inaccuracies and exaggerations, but Pinocchio is not yet.
Another example of violating the postulate of truth to create a comic effect: The gypsy kids are running around, dirty - it’s scary to watch. Take such a gypsy child, wash him with soap, and he immediately dies, he cannot tolerate cleanliness (A. Tolstoy. The Adventures of Nevzorov, or Ibicus).
Often, the language game uses features of different types of speech acts (such as statements, requests, questions, etc.). Sometimes one type of speech act is “masked” as another: a request in the form of a question (Could you give me some salt?), etc. Here's an anecdote that plays on this phenomenon:
Tour guide: “If dear ladies were silent for a moment, we would hear the terrifying roar of Niagara Falls.” A request to remain silent (with elements of reproach) is presented in the form of an assumption.
So-called communicative failures (the result of different understandings of the purpose of the statement) can also be played out:
Doctor to patient: “Take off your clothes!” - “And you, doctor?”
A language game has many features characteristic of games in general. Like the category of games, verbal games create a special, conventional model of reality. So humanity again and again creates its expression of existence, a second, fictional world next to the natural world. In any text space, the conventional model manifests itself in a double language code, which, thanks to verbal play, both the author and the recipient use, moving from an explicit way of expressing the perception of meaning to an implicit one and vice versa, which defines both as Homo ludens. In addition, the language game also has a special beauty; it has a peculiar rhythm and harmony. A verbal game lives according to certain rules that are accepted by two playing parties: the author of the game and its recipient, who, in the process of guessing the meanings, becomes a co-author of this communicative process. But, as for the rules for constructing a language game, they can be freely established or violated. Moreover, there is no less meaning in the act of destruction of a certain author’s construction than in the act of creation, and the creative effect is even more significant. A language game, along with the concept of a game, often contains a certain secret, a secret. This postulate is reflected in the camouflage function performed by the language game. After all, according to Z. Freud, the language game seems to hide the indecent, forbidden, cynical, absurd. And finally, the language game gives satisfaction. The addressee receives aesthetic pleasure from unraveling the elements of a verbal game, which is defined by R. Barthes as a pleasure from the “complexity of signification.” This increases the recipient’s own self-esteem. At the same time, the player talks about the pleasure of the game, but in reality it is pleasure from oneself through the game. And since a person is a tireless seeker of pleasure, this property most attracts the recipient’s attention to the phenomenon of language games. Like the phenomenon of play itself, a language game does not pursue specific practical goals other than pleasure and relief from boredom. Moreover, it is this property that is called by the philosopher J. - F. Lyotard as one of the main ones. Confirmation of this is folk speech or literature, where the continuous invention of phrases, words and meanings brings great joy, while developing the language. Moreover, not only the recipient receives pleasure from the game, but also the author himself, who, with the help of language games, achieves the effect of extreme sharpening and clarification of the meaning. The absence of a goal gives rise to the absence of a result planned in advance by the goal, which gives the game dynamism, turning it into an endless process and concluding its meaning not in the end, but in the movement itself.
In addition to following certain goals, a language game also implements specific functions. Among them:
aesthetic function, which consists in a conscious desire to experience and evoke in recipients a feeling of beauty through the very form of speech;
Gnostic function aimed at generating a new model of the world by re-creating already existing linguistic material;
hedonic function, its essence is to entertain the recipient with an unusual form of speech;
pragmatic function aimed at drawing attention to the original form of speech;
the expressive function serves a more figurative, and, accordingly, more subtle transmission of thought;
the visual function helps to visually recreate the speaking situation, as well as in some way characterize the person whose words are being conveyed;
Occasionally, researchers highlight the poetic function of language play.
This is how the authors of a monograph devoted to the problems of Russian colloquial speech justify this position: “When playing, the speaker pays great attention to the form of speech, and the focus on the message as such is the most characteristic feature of the poetic function of language. Thus, game function language is one of the special types of poetic function";
a camouflage function that puts on a “mask” of decency, prudence and logic on any obscene, cynical or even absurd text.
Many linguists consider language play as “a special type of speech-creative semiotic activity.” Like any game, it is played according to the rules, which include:
1) the presence of game participants - the producer and recipient of speech;
2) the presence of gaming material - linguistic means used by the author and perceived by the speech recipient;
3) availability of game conditions;
4) familiarization of participants with these conditions;
5) behavior of participants in accordance with the conditions and rules.
“The condition of a language game concerning the behavior of its participants is understood as the mandatory use in the process of a language game of such a type of mental activity in which the speech producer appeals to the presumptive knowledge of the recipient and “pushes” him to establish an inference, the premises of which are a verbalized text and non-verbalized presuppositions are the fund of general knowledge of the producer and recipient of speech." It should be noted that the rules or conditions of the language game are immutable; even the slightest deviation from them means an attempt to leave the game.
ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE GAME IN A. S. PUSHKIN’S EPIGRAMSIntroduction
S. Bally noted: “Each individual word is a loop of the finest network, which is woven by our memory from an unimaginable multitude of fibers, thousands of associations converge in each word and diverge from it in all directions.” It is this feature of language, due to the specifics of human thinking, that gives rise to such an interesting phenomenon aslanguage game. In art tests, various language games are a fairly well-known phenomenon.. The riddles that the reader needs to solve in a literary text require special knowledge from him and an attitude to restore them, an attitude to accept the author’s ironic and amused attitude, attributing the unusual to the familiar, somehow deforming the familiar, hinting at it.
The works of many linguists emphasize that a literary text is multidimensional, characterized by layers of meanings and presupposing the active participation of the reader in deciphering them.
However, to date, the mechanisms that give rise to a unique play on words and meanings in a literary text have not been fully studied, which is whyrelevance the research undertaken.
Object considerations were a language game and a joke in a literary text.
Subject Lexical, morphological, word-formation, and stylistic means of creating a comic effect in epigrams began to be studied.
Target The work consists in identifying various ways of linguistic realization of the comic in the analyzed poetic texts. The set goal determined the followingtasks:
develop criteria for distinguishing the concepts of “language game”;
identify the most productive ways of implementing the comic in the analyzed texts;
to conduct a psychological and linguistic experiment, during which it is expected to establish how much a modern reader is able to understand and decipher the linguistic joke contained in the epigrams of A. S. Pushkin.
Asmaterial The study was based on a card index of the poet’s epigrams, made by continuous sampling from the Complete Works of A. S. Pushkin in 20 volumes (22 epigrams).
Was nominatedworking hypothesis, which consists in the fact that the linguistic joke in the epigrams of A. S. Pushkin is complex in nature; various linguistic means (lexical, morphological, stylistic) are used in its creation.
Methodological foundations The work produced provisions on the systemic nature of language, on the connection between language and thinking.
Mainmethods are observation, description, comparison.
In accordance with the nature of the goal and objectives, the following special methods were also used: ascertaining experiment in order to establish the fact of perception of the comic by the modern reader in the text of the epigram; a psychological and linguistic experiment to identify the reasons causing the comic perception of the analyzed text.
Scientific novelty The work is determined by the fact that it establishes the reasons and mechanism for the appearance of the comic in the texts of epigrams.
Theoretical significance is that the work substantiates the criteria for distinguishing the concepts of “language game” and “language joke”; a working definition of the term “language joke” is given.
Practical significance. The results of the study and language material can be used when studying the sections “Vocabulary” and “Text Stylistics” in the school course of the Russian language, as well as when studying the works of A. S. Pushkin.
1. Language game in a literary text: the problem of definition and delimitation
1.1. Language game and language joke.
Defining a language game involves great difficulties. Some researchers raise the question that it would be more correct to talk about speech game, since it is “bidirectional in relation to language and speech”. It is implemented in speech, taking into account the situation and characteristics of the interlocutor; the effect, the result of the language game is singular. According to other scientists, it is still preferable to use the traditional term - language game, since it is based on knowledge of the system of language units, the norms of their use and ways of creative interpretation of these units.
The phenomenon of a language game as “a way of organizing a text in terms of correlation with a linguistic norm is based on any violation of the rules of use of a language or text unit.”
A more specific type of language game stands out, the purpose of which is to create a comic effect - a language joke. The scientific literature emphasizes that between the conceptslanguage game Andlanguage joke there is no clear boundary. When analyzing literary texts, it is sometimes very difficult to determine whether or not this or that author had as his goal the creation of a comic effect.
In this work, the following distinction is made between the conceptslanguage game Andlanguage joke.
In the course of analyzing the scientific literature, we adopted the following distinction: the termlanguage game seems broader. The goal of a language game is not always to create a comic effect, but any violation of the language norm remains obligatory in order to reveal the complex sides of the author’s self.
Language joke language By joke we understand a semantically integral fragment of text with comic content.
1.2. Problems of the comic in language.
Since the most important signlanguage jokes is a comic effect, it seems necessary to understand the nature of the comic.
Scientists studying the nature of the comic note that “not a single researcher... has been able to create a universal and comprehensive definition,” despite the fact that this phenomenon has been considered since ancient times.
The modern definition of the comic is not fundamentally different from the ancient definition.
So, the comic effect is not caused by any deviation from the norm, but only by such a deviation that causes the appearance of a second plan, sharply contrasting with the first.
1.3. Brief conclusions.
In the course of analyzing the scientific literature, we adopted the following terminological distinction: the termlanguage game seems broader. The goal of a language game is not always to create a comic effect, but any violation of the language norm remains mandatory in order to reveal the complex sides of the author’s “I”.
Language joke is a less broad concept; the purpose of a linguistic joke, as a rule, is to create a comic effect. A joke remains independent in the structure of a literary text and can be extracted from it. Thus, underWith a linguistic joke we understand a semantically integral fragment of text with comic content.
2. Language game in poetic text A.S. Pushkin
2.1. Linguistic experiment as a means of analyzing poetic text.
The works of many linguists emphasize that a literary text is multidimensional, it is characterized by layers of meanings and assumes the active participation of the reader in deciphering them. As part of the study, a ascertaining and psychological-linguistic experiment was carried out, during which it was established how much a modern reader is able to recognize and understand the linguistic joke contained in the analyzed text fragment. The experiment was conducted among students in grades 10-11. High school students were asked to read the texts of A. S. Pushkin’s epigrams and mark those in which, in their opinion, there is a comic effect; then the students explained why, in their opinion, the epigrams were funny.
The following results were obtained.
Those epigrams in which comedy was created were considered funny:
deliberate collision of opposite, lexically incompatible meanings of words;
the use of stylistically heterogeneous elements that differ sharply from each other;
using the disappointed expectation effect.
Epigrams in which the comic is based on the facts of the biography of the author and the addressees of his epigrams, the nuances of their relationship, unknown to the modern schoolchild, were not considered funny.
2.2. Lexical means of creating a comic.
Let's consider the lexical means of creating a linguistic joke in the epigrams of A. S. Pushkin:
How are you not tired of swearing!
My calculation with you is short:
Well, I'm idle, I'm idle,
And you business slacker .
In the above text, the main means of creating a comic effect is the combination “business slacker ». It simultaneously contains affirmation and negation; there is incompatibility of words such asslacker (one who does nothing, is idle, leads an idle lifestyle, lazy)
Andbusiness (knowledgeable and experienced in business, connected with business, busy with business; knowledgeable in business).
A similar technique for creating a comic is used by A. S. Pushkin in the following epigram:
...Calm down, buddy! Why the magazine noise?
And languid lampoons stupidity ?
The entertainer is angry, he will say with a smile stupidity ,
The ignorant is stupid, yawning, the Mind will say.
This fragment plays on the synonymous-antonymous relationships of such words asignoramus, stupidity, stupidity, intelligence.
As the researchers note, “for the sake of a catchphrase, Pushkin did not mince words”. In some cases, the author uses colloquial vocabulary, for example:
Slanderer without talent
He searches for sticks with his instincts,
And the day's food
Monthly lies.
In other cases, the poet’s epigrams contain many colloquial and even rude words, which he used to discredit his characters:
"Tell me, what's new?" - Not a word.
“Don’t you know where, how and who?”
- ABOUT, brother, get off me - all I know is
What you fool ... But this is not new.
The most interesting texts in the epigrammatic heritage of A. S. Pushkin are those in which surnames and first names are played out.
Thus, in the epigram on Kachenovsky, the poet plays on the surname of its owner, as a result of which it becomes “speaking”
Where the ancient Kochergovsky
He rested over Rollin,
Days of the newest Tredyakovsky
Conjured and bewitched:
Fool, with his back to the sun,
Under your cold Messenger
Sprinkled with dead water,
I sprayed Izhitsa alive.
The same technique was used by A. S. Pushkin in his epigram to Thaddeus Bulgarin:
It's not a problem Avdey Flugarin,
That next to you you are not a Russian gentleman,
That on Parnassus you are a gypsy,
What in the world are you Vidocq Figlarin :
The trouble is that your novel is boring.
The author only distorts the name and surname of the unloved character, but this is already enough to give an unflattering satirical assessment of the entire mediocre work of F. Bulgarin.
In another famous epigram, A.S. Pushkin does not change his surname, but simply rearranges them several times:
There are three gloomy singers -
Shikhmatov, Shakhovskoy, Shishkov;
The mind has three adversaries-
Our Shishkov, Shakhovskoy, Shikhmatov,
But who is the stupidest of the three evil ones?
Shishkov, Shikhmatov, Shakhovskoy!
2.3. Stylistic and word-formation means of creating comic.
2.3.1. In the epigrammatic legacy of A. S. Pushkin, the technique of playing up the discrepancy between form and content is often used: “low” content and “high” style or, conversely, “high” content and colloquial or even colloquial vocabulary. An example of such a game could be an epigram in a book. P. I. Shalikova:
Prince Shalikov, our sad newspaperman,
I read an elegy to my family,
And the Cossack stub of a tallow candle
He held it in his hands with trepidation.
Suddenly our boy began to cry and squeal.
“Here, here, take an example from, fools! -
He shouted to his daughters in delight. -
Open up to me, O dear son of nature,
Oh! What has made your gaze brighter with tears?”
And he answered: “I want to go to the yard ».
This text combines lexical units of different styles: high(looks sharper) , rough( stupid ), colloquial(to the yard ). As we see, comedy is also created by playing out the situation as a whole. The entire epigram is built on a contradiction. The reason for the boy’s tears, as it turns out, is not caused by a “high” emotional reaction to reading the elegy, but, on the contrary, by a “low” physiological need.
In the above text, the clash of elements of different styles creates a linguistic joke.
Due to the stylistic contrast, a comic effect is created in the following epigram:
EPIGRAM H.A. A . M. KOLOSOV
Everything captivates us in Esther:
Intoxicating speech
The step is important in purple,
Black curls to shoulder length;
Whitened hand.
Painted eyebrows
And wide feet.
In the above text, along with the neutral( speech, curls, voice ) and high vocabulary( step, purple, gaze ) a reduced (colloquial, dismissive) word is usedpainted [eyebrows] in the meaning of “roughly, painted with paints,” which cannot characterize a noble, sophisticated woman.
In this epigram, one phenomenon (beauty, nobility, sophistication) is revealed as the opposite (their absence) and, thus, the image of the heroine of the epigram is generally reduced. The reader feels the effect of disappointed expectations: instead of a noble beauty, a roughly painted, ponderous lady appears before him. This detail finally emphasizes the image of the pseudo-beauty created by the poet.
2.3.2. In our material, only a few texts were noted in which word-forming devices were used:
TO COUNT VORONTSOV
Half my lord, half merchant,
Semi-scoundrel, but there is hope
Which will be complete at last.
Half-sage, half-ignorant,
This epigram plays on the morphemesemi-, which, as noted in dictionaries, means “half of something.” In direct use with inanimate nouns denoting objects, morphemesemi- does not have any special shades of meaning, however, in combination with nouns denoting persons(half my lord, half merchant, half sage, half ignorant, half scoundrel ), this morpheme acquires an additional evaluative meaning.
2.4. Brief conclusions.
The analysis showed that the combination and alternation of different thematic and different style elements in the texts of epigrams are the main means of creating a comic. The abundance of various techniques, the mixing of stylistic layers - all this is a sign of the language and style of Pushkin’s epigrams.
Conclusion
Thus, the most productive means of realizing the comic in the analyzed texts are the following:
clash in the context of incompatible lexical meanings of words;
the use of stylistically heterogeneous elements that sharply contrast with each other;
use of the disappointed expectation effect.
The experiment confirmed that the combination and alternation of different thematic and different style elements in the texts of epigrams is perceived by modern readers as a linguistic joke.
The results of the study were summarized in the following summary table.
Means of creating linguistic jokes in the epigrams of A. S. Pushkin
(data are given in absolute terms and in shares)
Tools for creating language jokesQuantitative data
Lexical
9 (0,4)
Stylistic
6 (0,3)
Synthetic
5 (0,2)
Derivational
2(0,1)
Total
22(1,0)
As evidenced by the table, in which quantitative data are presented in descending order, the most common means of creating linguistic jokes in epigrams are
A. S. Pushkin are lexical and stylistic (0.4 and 0.3). In addition, the author often uses a combination of lexical and stylistic means (0.2). The smallest share in our material was made up of word-forming means of creating a comic effect (0.1).
list of used literature
1. Bally, Sh. French stylistics / S. Bally. - M, 1961.
Budagov, R. A. Introduction to the science of language / R. A. Budagov. -M, 1965.
Bulakhovsky, L. A. Introduction to linguistics / L. A. Bulakhovsky. - M., 1953.
Vinogradov, V.V. Poetics of Russian literature / V. V. Vinogradov // Selected works. - M., 1976.
Vinokur, G. O. On the language of fiction / G. O. Vinokur. - M., 1991.
Volskaya, N. N. Language game in the autobiographical prose of M. Tsvetaeva / N. N. Volskaya // Russian speech. - 2006. - No. 4. -S. 30-33.
Gridina, T. A. Language game: stereotype and creativity / T. A. Gridina. - Ekaterinburg, 1996.
8. Dzemidok, B. About the comic / B. Dzemidok. - M., 1974.
9.
Dolgushev, V. G.
Paradox and means of the comic in V. You-
Sotsky / V. G. Dolgushev // Russian speech. - 2006. - No. 1. - P. 49-51.
Zemskaya, E. A. Speech techniques of the comic in Soviet literature / E. A. Zemskaya // Studies on the language of Soviet writers. - M., 1959.
Kasatkin, L. L. Russian language / ed. L. L. Kasatkina. - M., 2001.
Kovalev, G. F. Onomastic puns by A. S. Pushkin / G. F. Kovalev // Russian speech. - 2006. - No. 1. - P. 3-8.
Kostomarov, V. G. Language taste of the era / V. G. Kostomarov. - M., 1994.
Novikov, L. A. Semantics of the Russian language / L. A. Noviko Pankov, A. V. Bakhtin's solution / A.V. Pankov. - M., 1995.
16.
Pokrovskaya, E. V.
Language game in newspaper text /
E. V. Pokrovskaya // Russian speech. - 2006. - No. 6. - P. 58-62.
17. Russian Speaking. - M., 1983.
Sannikov, V. 3. Russian language in the mirror of the language game / V. Z. Sannikov. - M., 2002.
Sannikov, V. 3. Linguistic experiment and language game / V. Z. Sannikov // Bulletin of Moscow State University. Ser. 9. Philology. - 1994. - No. 6.
Sannikov, V. 3. Pun as a semantic phenomenon / V. Z. Sannikov // Questions of linguistics. - 1995. - No. 3. - P. 56-69.
Fomina, M. I. Modern Russian language. Lexicology / M. I. Fomina. - M, 1973.
Fomina, M. I. Modern Russian language. Lexicology / M. I. Fomina. - M, 2001.
Khodakova, E. P. Pun in Russian literature of the 18th century. / E. P. Khodakova // Russian literary speech in the 18th century: Phraseology. Neologisms. Puns. - M., 1968.
Shmelev, D. N. Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary (on the material of the Russian language) / D. N. Shmelev. - M., 1973.
sources, dictionaries and accepted abbreviations
Pushkin, A. S. Complete collection Op.: in 20 volumes - M., 1999-2000
(PSS).
Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian language / ed.D. N. Ushakova: v4t.-M., 1996 (TSU).
Dictionary language of A. S. Pushkin: in 4 volumes - M., 1956-1961.
Identify the main means and techniques of language play used in the speech of a strong linguistic personality; characterize a weak, average and strong linguistic personality; determine the main criteria and properties, types and methods of language games; learn the main functions of the language game...
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BACHELOR'S GRADUATE THESIS
Linguistic features of language play in the speech of a strong linguistic personality
Krasnodar 2014
Introduction
1. Linguistic features of language play in the speech of a strong linguistic personality
1.1 Parameters and criteria of a strong linguistic personality
1.1.1 Understanding linguistic personality in modern linguistics
1.1.2 Types and types of linguistic personality (weak, average,
1.2 Linguistic studies of the language game
1.2.1 The role of language games in world culture and the language of works of art
1.2.2 Definition of a language game
1.2.3 Understanding the language game in various humanities
1.2.4 Criteria and properties, types and methods of language games
1.2.5 Functions of the language game
1.2.6 Means and techniques of language games used in speech
strong linguistic personality
1.2.7 Methods and techniques for the linguistic study of language games
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
The relevance of the research topic is largely due to the fact that the language game needs comprehensive study. Currently, many works have been written devoted to the study of language play in the speech of linguistic individuals. However, there are no specific criteria for assessing linguistic personality and a unified classification of language games.
There are a huge number of linguistic personalities, whose language game can become the most interesting material for study. For example, the language of M.M. Zhvanetsky and F.G. Ranevskaya. There are practically no linguistic studies devoted to the linguistic analysis of their work. Meanwhile, the language game in the works of these bright linguistic personalities is diverse and unique. Their turns of speech became catchphrases and quotes. We come across them on the pages of newspapers, on social networks, in the media, and hear from friends. Their popularity is becoming more and more every day. Collections of their works and statements have been published. The turns of speech of these outstanding people are characterized by a deep meaning, which is not always immediately clear, so their linguistic analysis can help to comprehend the hidden meanings expressed in game form, and the individuals themselves.
The object of the study is the speech parameters and features of speech use of linguistic individuals who can be classified as strong.
The subject of the study was the statements of the Soviet theater and film actress Faina Georgievna Ranevskaya and the modern satirist Mikhail Mikhailovich Zhvanetsky.
The purpose of the study is to identify the features of language play in the speech of a strong linguistic personality.
The tasks are defined by the goal and boil down to the following:
Define a language game;
Identify the basic means and techniques of language games,
used in the speech of a strong linguistic personality;
Characterize a weak, average and strong linguistic personality;
Determine the main criteria and properties, types and methods of language games;
Study the main functions of the language game;
statements by M. Zhvanetsky and F. Ranevskaya.
The methodological basis of the research is the works in the field of studying the language game and linguistic personality of M.M. Bakhtin, V.V. Vinogradov, L. Wittgenstein, V.I. Karasik, E.N. Ryadchikova, V.Z. Sannikova, J. Huizinga and other scientists.
Illustrative material was extracted from the book by I.V. Zakharov (Zakharov, 2002), the official website of M. Zhvanetsky and Internet resources. The card index contains more than 250 items.
Scientific methods used in the study: component analysis method, descriptive method, semantic analysis method, classification.
The theoretical significance is determined by referring to the concepts of “language game”, “linguistic personality”, “syntactic-semantic morphology”, their development and structuring, as well as the possibility of applying the achieved results in scientific works devoted to the language game in the speech of a linguistic personality.
The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that linguistics has not yet developed a direction that would study language play in the speech of a linguistic personality from the point of view of syntactic-semantic morphology. This work is one of the first systematic studies in this direction.
The practical value of the study lies in the fact that its materials can be used in teaching university courses and special courses on the theory and practice of speech communication, rhetoric, imageology, speech play, text analysis, syntactic semantics, and also become the basis for further study of language play in speech other linguistic personalities.
The work was tested at the annual student scientific conference “Science and creativity of young researchers at KubSU: results and prospects” (April 2012, April 2013).
1 Linguistic features of language play in strong speechlinguistic personality
1.1 Parameters and criteria of a strong linguistic personality
1.1. 1 Understanding linguistic personality
A person’s speech is his inner portrait. D. Carnegie argued that a person is always judged by his speech, which can tell discerning listeners about the society in which he moves, about the level of intelligence, education and culture (Carnegie, 1989).
The term “linguistic personality” was first used by V.V. Vinogradov in 1930. He wrote: “...If we rise from the external grammatical forms of language to more internal (“Ideological”) and to more complex constructive forms of words and their combinations; If we recognize that not only the elements of speech, but also the compositional techniques of their combinations, associated with the peculiarities of verbal thinking, are essential signs of linguistic associations, then the structure of the literary language appears in a much more complex form than Saussure’s flat system of linguistic relationships. And the personality, included in different of these “subjective” spheres and itself including them, combines them into a special structure. In objective terms, everything that has been said can be transferred to speech as the sphere of creative disclosure of the linguistic personality” (Vinogradov, pp. 91-92).
In modern linguistics, the problem of studying linguistic personality is one of the most pressing, since “it is impossible to know the language itself without going beyond its boundaries, without turning to its creator, bearer, user - to a person, to a specific linguistic personality” (Karaulov, 1987 ). As V.I. writes Karasik, the science of linguistic personality, or linguopersonology, is “one of the new areas of linguistic knowledge. Yu.N. is rightfully considered the founder of this trend in Russian linguistics. Karaulov, whose book focused the interests of linguists on the development of the problem of linguistic consciousness and communicative behavior (Karaulov, 1987). The term “linguopersonology” was introduced and substantiated by V.P. Unknown (1996). Linguopersonology as an integrative field of humanitarian knowledge is based on the achievements of linguistics, literary criticism, psychology, sociology, and cultural studies" (Karasik, 2007).
To date, a global, interdisciplinary approach to the interpretation of the essence of language as a specific human phenomenon has been formed, through which one can understand the nature of the individual, his place in society and ethnicity, his intellectual and creative potential, i.e. understand more deeply for yourself what a Man is (Susov, 1989). As E.A. Dryangin, “ideas concerning the characteristics of this concept were presented in the works of V.V. Vinogradova (“About artistic prose”), SlavchoPetkova (“Ezik and personality”), R.A. Budagova (Man and his language). But none of these works provides access to a real, integral linguistic personality as a linguistic object” (Dryangina, 2006).
For modern science, the interest is no longer just a person in general, but an individual, i.e. a specific person, a bearer of consciousness, language, with a complex inner world and a certain attitude towards fate, the world of things and others like him. He occupies a special position in the Universe and on Earth; he constantly enters into dialogue with the world, himself and his own kind. Man is a social being by nature, the human in man is generated by his life in the conditions of society, in the conditions of the culture created by mankind (Leontyev, 1996). The image of the world is formed in any person during his contacts with the world and is the basic concept of the theory of linguistic personality (Samosenkova, 2006).
“The word personality, which has a bright coloring of the Russian national-linguistic system of thought, contains elements of an international and, above all, European understanding of the corresponding range of ideas and ideas about man and society, about social individuality in its relation to the collective and the state” (Vinogradov, 1994).
E. Sapir also spoke about the mutual influence of a person and his speech (Sapir, 1993).
One of the first appeals to the linguistic personality is associated with the name of the German scientist J.L. Weisgerbera. G.I. began to develop the concept of linguistic personality in detail. Bogin, who created a model of linguistic personality, where a person is considered from the point of view of his “readiness to perform speech acts, create and accept works of speech” (Bogin, 1986). The active, activity aspect is emphasized as the most important for a linguistic personality by other scientists: “A linguistic personality is characterized not so much by what it knows in the language, but by what it can do with the language” (Biryukova, 2008). G.I. Bogin understands a linguistic personality as a person as a speaker of speech who has the ability to use the language system as a whole in his activities (Bogin, 1986). A similar understanding is given by Yu.N. Karaulov: “A linguistic personality is a personality expressed in language (texts) and through language; it is a personality reconstructed in its main features on the basis of linguistic means” (Karaulov, 1987).
The study of linguistic personality is currently multidimensional, large-scale, and attracts data from many related sciences (Krasilnikova, 1989). “Concept? linguistic personality? formed by the projection into the field of linguistics of a corresponding interdisciplinary term, in the meaning of which philosophical, sociological and psychological views on a socially significant set of physical and spiritual properties of a person that make up his qualitative certainty are refracted” (Vorkachev, 2001).
Linguistic personality is a social phenomenon, but it also has an individual aspect. The individual in a linguistic personality is formed through an internal attitude to language, through the formation of personal linguistic meanings, while the linguistic personality influences the formation of linguistic traditions. Each linguistic personality is formed on the basis of the appropriation by a specific person of all the linguistic wealth created by his predecessors. The language of a particular person consists to a greater extent of the general language and to a lesser extent of individual linguistic characteristics (Mignenko, 2007).
Yu.N. Karaulov distinguishes three levels of linguistic personality: verbal-semantic, linguistic-cognitive (thesaurus) and pragmatic (or motivational) (Karaulov, 1987). He speaks “about three ways, three ways of representing the linguistic personality, towards which linguodidactic descriptions of language are oriented. One of them comes from the three-level organization described above (consisting of verbal-semantic, or structural-systemic, linguocognitive, or thesaurus, and motivational levels) of the linguistic personality; the other is based on a set of skills, or readiness, of a linguistic personality to carry out various types of speech-thinking activities and perform various kinds of communicative roles; finally, the third is an attempt to reconstruct a linguistic personality in three-dimensional space: a) data on the level structure of language (phonetics, grammar, vocabulary), b) types of speech activity (speaking, listening, writing, reading), c) degrees of language mastery" (Karaulov , 1987).
So, already from the definitions of linguistic personality presented by Yu.N. Karaulov, followed by the fact of heterogeneity, differences in “qualitative
attitude" of linguistic personalities. The scientist wrote: “A linguistic personality is understood as a set of abilities to create and perceive speech works (texts), differing in the degree of structural and linguistic complexity, accuracy and depth of reflection of reality, a certain purposefulness” (Karaulov, 1987). It is quite obvious that not only speech productions differ in complexity, but also the indicated abilities of people are different. Accordingly, the linguistic personality should not be considered as something homogeneous, but a certain gradation should be made, a hierarchy of types of linguistic personality should be created. “The very choice of means of designation can be interpreted as a speech act, characterizing, as such, the one who performs this act, according to its personal (intersubjective), interpersonal and social aspects” (Teliya, 1986). It follows that a person’s speech acts are capable of differentiating the speaker/writer. A personality in communication, in communicative discourse, can manifest itself “as contact and non-contact, conformist and non-conformist, cooperative and non-cooperative, hard and soft, straightforward and maneuvering. It is the personality, who is the subject of discourse, that gives the speech act one or another illocutionary force or direction. A personality is an integral part of discourse, but at the same time she creates it, embodying in it her temperament, abilities, feelings, motives of activity, individual characteristics of the course mental processes"(Zakutskaya, 2001).
A.V. Puzyrev also defends the idea of a multi-level linguistic personality, pointing to such hypostases as mental (the dominant archetypes of consciousness in society), linguistic (the degree of “development and characteristics of the language used”), speech (the nature of the texts that fill time and space), communicative (the ratio of communicative and quasi-communicative, actualizing and manipulative types of communication) (Puzyrev, 1997).
This idea is supported and developed by S.A. Sukhikh and V.V. Zelenskaya, who understand the linguistic personality as a complex multi-level functional system, including levels of language proficiency (linguistic competence), knowledge of ways to carry out verbal interaction (communicative competence) and knowledge of the world (thesaurus) (Sukhikh, Zelenskaya, 1998). Researchers believe that a linguistic personality necessarily has a feature of verbal behavior (linguistic trait), which is repeated at the exponential (formal), substantial and intentional levels of discourse. At the exponential (formal) level, the linguistic personality manifests itself as active or conscious, persuasive, hesitive or unfounded; at the substantial level it has qualities of concreteness or abstractness; at the intentional level, the linguistic personality is characterized by such traits as humorous or literal, conflict-oriented or cooperative, directive or decentered (Sukhikh, Zelenskaya 1998). Each of the levels of linguistic personality is reflected in the structure of discourse, which has, respectively, formal or exponential, substantial and intentional aspects.
In linguistics, a linguistic personality finds itself at the crossroads of study from two positions: from the position of its ideolecticity, that is, individual characteristics in speech activity, and from the position of reproduction of a cultural prototype (see Kulishova, 2001).
1.1.2 Types and types of linguistic personality
Linguistic personality is a heterogeneous concept, not only multi-level, but also multifaceted and diverse. V.B. Goldin and O.B. Sirotinin distinguishes seven types of speech cultures: elite speech culture, “average literary, literary-colloquial, familiar-colloquial, vernacular, folk-speech, professionally limited. The first four types are the speech cultures of native speakers of a literary language (Goldin, Sirotinina, 1993).
The level division of speech ability (G.I. Bogin, Yu.N. Karaulov) provides for the lower, semantic-structural, and higher, motivational-pragmatic, levels, the latter of which is characterized by efficiency associated with intellectual activity, as well as with various affects and feelings, developed general and speech culture of a person (Biryukova, 2008). Yu.V. Betz characterizes three levels of language proficiency as “pre-system”, system and “super-system”. “An error gravitates towards the first level of language acquisition, intentional deviation from the norm - towards the third level, and correct speech (and hidden speech individuality) - towards the second” (Betz, 2009). All linguistic facts can be distributed, the researcher believes, into three categories: 1) errors and omissions; 2) correct choices and 3) innovations that demonstrate creative use of the language system. “A noticeable predominance of one of the categories indicates the level of development of the linguistic personality, the degree of language mastery” (Betz, 2009).
N.D. Golev proposes to classify the types of linguistic personality according to the strength and weakness of the manifestation of signs, depending on its ability to produce and analyze a speech work, as “creative” and “hoarding”, “substantial” and “formal”, “onomasiological” and “semasiological”, “mnemonic” " and "inferential", "associative" and "logical-analytical" types (Golev, 2004). The possibility of expanding the concept of linguistic personality occurred due to the inclusion of the provisions of social psychology on its formation in communication and understood as a “model of interpersonal relationships” (Obozov, 1981; Reinwald, 1972).
As noted by V.I. Karasik, linguistic classifications of personalities are based on the relationship of personality to language. We distinguish people with high, medium and low levels of communicative competence, carriers of high or mass speech culture, speaking one language, and bilinguals who use a foreign language in natural or educational communication, capable and less capable of language creativity, using standard and non-standard means of communication (Karasik, 2007). At the same time, the degree of competence seems to be a concept that is designed to regulate both successes and failures in the communication process, since competence is felt both ontologically and phylogenetically (Thorik, Fanyan, 1999).
V.P. Neroznak identifies two main types of private human linguistic personality: 1) standard, reflecting the average literary norm of the language, and 2) non-standard, which combines the “tops” and “bottoms” of the culture of the language. The researcher considers writers and masters of artistic speech to be the heights of culture. The lower classes of culture unite the speakers, producers and users of a marginal language culture (anticulture) (Neroznak, 1996).
According to G.G. Infantova, within the literary language, based on the level of its mastery, three types of speech cultures are clearly distinguished: elite culture (super-high), “average literary” culture (generally quite high), and literary low culture. However, these terms, the researcher notes, are very conditional. Each type of speech culture has subtypes, and between them there are syncretic, intermediate varieties. Based on profession, type of occupation, linguistic personalities of different types can be distinguished, for example: individuals for whom language learning and speech activity are an element of the profession (philologists, teachers, actors, speakers, writers, etc.), and linguistic individuals who implement the language system in speech not as a component of professional activity itself. At the same time, people of the same specialty can speak language/speech at different levels. Thus, teachers can be carriers of both elite and “average literary” speech culture (Infantova, 2000).
O.A. Kadilina proposes a classification of linguistic personalities, which includes three components: 1) weak linguistic personality; 2) average linguistic personality; 3) a strong (elite) linguistic personality (Kadilina, 2011). This classification seems to us to be the most accurate.
Let's consider the main parameters of each of these types.
Average linguistic personality
The concept of an average native speaker has not yet been defined in the linguistic literature; the scope of his regional knowledge for any language has not been exhaustively described. (On the “middle level theory” in modern linguistics, see, for example: Frumkina, 1996; Fedyaeva, 2003). There is also no clear answer to the question of how much the average native speaker knows about a particular fact. Whether his knowledge is limited by the volume of the explanatory dictionary, to what extent encyclopedic information is presented, where the border between individual and social associations is is difficult to determine (Ivanishcheva, 2002).
Perhaps the study of the “average” native speaker is not of particular interest to domestic linguists, not only due to the blurred boundaries and criteria of such a person, but also because “in the Russian language, the mediocrity of a person, his averageness, and the absence of clear individual traits are negatively assessed; in the cultural and linguistic society of Russian language speakers, the qualitative uncertainty of the personality is negatively assessed - the half-heartedness, instability of its value-motivational structure" (Zelenskaya, Tkhorik, Golubtsov, 2000).
HE. Ivanishcheva notes that “for? the average native speaker? our contemporary is accepted, having a secondary education (graduated from school at least ten years ago), without taking into account age, gender, occupation, field of activity (E.M. Vereshchagin), the author of the study (V.Ts. Vuchkova), an average linguistic personality, those. one abstract native speaker instead of a set of individuals in mass linguistic research (you, me, they, the old man, Napoleon, Mohammed... in one) (Yu.N. Karaulov). “I think,” writes O.N. Ivanishchev, - that the concept of an average native speaker includes two aspects - the content (level) of knowledge and its volume. Determining what the average native speaker should know may mean, on the one hand, defining a “minimum cultural literacy”, i.e. what everyone who was born, grew up and graduated from high school in a given country is supposed to know, and on the other hand, what a native speaker actually knows” (Ivanishcheva, 2002).
In the article “Correct sounding is a necessary attribute of Russian speech” Z.U. Blyagoz addresses all speakers, without exception, and rightly speaks about the peculiar speech duty of any native speaker: “So is it necessary to monitor the correctness of your speech behavior? It is necessary, although it is not easy. Why is it necessary? Because competent speech is needed not only on the theater stage, it is needed by everyone who is preparing to communicate with the public. Competent, intelligible speech with clear diction is an indicator of a respectful attitude towards both the interlocutor and oneself. Speech that is correct from the point of view of the norm raises our image and authority. Stress is an integral part of our speech culture, compliance with the norms of verbal stress is the duty of every speaker of the Russian language, an indispensable condition for the culture of speech” (Blyagoz, 2008).
O.A. Kadilina says that in interpersonal speech communication, the average linguistic personality, as a rule, does not think about oratory skills, about the impression her words make, about the comfort of communication, about techniques and means that help to win and retain the attention of the interlocutor (Kadilina, 2011).
G.I. Bogin, when developing criteria for determining levels of language proficiency, included the following parameters in the model of language proficiency levels: correctness (knowledge of a sufficiently large vocabulary and basic structure patterns of the language, allowing one to construct a statement and produce texts in accordance with the rules of a given language); interiorization (the ability to implement and perceive a statement in accordance with the internal plan of the speech act); richness (diversity and richness of expressive means at all language levels); adequate choice (from the point of view of compliance of linguistic means with the communicative situation and the roles of the communicants); adequate synthesis (correspondence of a gesture generated by a person to the entire complex of communicative and meaningful tasks) (see: Bogin 1975; Bogin 1984; Bogin 1986). A reflection of a number of parameters of a strong linguistic personality is presented, for example, in articles (Abdulfanova, 2000; Infantova, 2000; Kuznetsova, 2000; Lipatov, 2000; Lipatov, 2002).
Weak language personality
E.N. writes about the reasons for the appearance of a large number of weak linguistic individuals and the consequences of this. Ryadchikova: “With many undeniable advantages, the policy of the Soviet state, nevertheless, was aimed at eradicating the intelligentsia as a class and humiliating it in every possible way. For decades, a stereotype of a disdainful, ironic attitude towards culture has been developed. The concepts of “etiquette”, “politeness”, “rhetoric” are still considered by many people, if not as bourgeois as at the dawn of Soviet power, then at least abstruse, incomprehensible and unnecessary. However, such denial and ridicule lasts only as long as a person silently observes someone. When it comes to having to speak up yourself, especially for large audience or in front of a television camera, conscious or unconscious “self-exposure” begins, the person himself begins to experience inconvenience, and even suffering, even neurotic reactions from the inability to communicate” (Ryadchikova, 2001). It is no secret that in our country there are often cases when even fully grown, fully formed specialists with higher education do not know the forms of speech etiquette (even simple clichéd forms such as greetings, expressions of sympathy, congratulations, compliments, etc. cause difficulties), not they know how to communicate with seniors in age and position (including over the phone), do not consider it necessary to simply listen to another person, and do not know how to read kinetic information. They are afraid or do not know how to resist the impoliteness and rudeness of their opponents. This leads to constraint, tightness, fear and avoidance of communication, the inability not only to conduct a conversation in the right direction, to calmly and worthily defend one’s point of view, but even simply to express it in a form accessible to other people, which is fraught with conflicts with management and with clients ( Ibid.).
In relation to a weak linguistic personality, there is a “mismatch (at the semantic level) between the sign formation, postulated as a text, and its projections (Rubakin, 1929), formed in the process of perception, understanding and evaluation of the text by recipients” (Sorokin, 1985). Consequently, like a strong linguistic personality, a weak linguistic personality acts both as an author and as a recipient of speech.
The main sign of a weak linguistic personality is poor speech. “Bad (in semantic, communicative, linguistic terms) speech is evidence of unformed cognitive models, the absence of information fragments, and the connection between mental and verbal structures. Both “good” and “good” can be assessed in a similar way. average? speech" (Butakova, 2004).
Research by Yu.V. Betz convincingly prove that at the beginning of its formation, a linguistic personality acquires first of all
system of the language, and only then - the norm and usage. At the first stage of language acquisition, the structure of the language, its norms and usage have not yet been mastered, which is manifested in the presence of a large number of errors, poverty of speech - in a word, in the unprocessed speech of a particular individual. Conventionally, this level can be called “pre-system”. The specifics of this period are illustrated by children's speech and the speech of people learning a second language. Deviation from the norm and usage may be in the nature of an error. At the same time, errors in the production of utterances may be due to the complexity of the speech production process itself or its failures, then they do not depend on the level of mastery of the language system, its norm or usage (Betz, 2009). S.N. Tseitlin recognizes the main cause of speech errors as “pressure of the language system” (Tseitlin, 1982).
Since speech communication is the basis (a kind of means of production and a tool of labor) for a number of humanitarian types of social activity, such as, for example, jurisprudence, teaching, politics, it is obvious that the specifics of their speech should be comprehensively studied in order to be able to create examples of how norms and “anti-norms” of such communication, to warn people against mistakes that they themselves probably do not notice, but having made, they often discredit themselves as a speaking person, as a specialist (Ryadchikova, Kushu, 2007).
Like a strong linguistic personality, a weak linguistic personality can manifest itself at almost all speech and communicative levels: phonetic (orthoepic), lexical, semantic, phraseological, grammatical, stylistic, logical, pragmatic. However, in this regard, as V.I. rightly writes. Karasik, “what is important is not so much the hierarchy of levels as the idea of an inextricable connection between different signals that characterize either prestigious or non-prestigious speech” (Karasik, 2001).
Speech needs constant improvement. D. Carnegie suggests that any speaker can carefully follow the rules and patterns of constructing a public speech, but still make a bunch of mistakes. He can speak in front of an audience exactly as he would in a private conversation, and yet speak in an unpleasant voice, make grammatical errors, be awkward, be offensive, and engage in many inappropriate behavior. Carnegie suggests that each person's natural, everyday way of speaking needs many corrections, and it is necessary to first improve the natural way of speaking before transferring this method to the platform (Carnegie, 1989).
It is possible to determine whether a speaker belongs to a low social stratum of society (which in the vast majority of countries in the world correlates with the concept of a weak linguistic personality) already at the level of pronunciation and intonation. IN AND. Karasik talks about a low educational level and provincial origin and lists a number of signs of a “despised pronunciation” (Karasik, 2001). “Pronunciation should not be illiterate, on the one hand, and pretentious, on the other hand” (Karasik, 2001).
(Ibid.). In the speech of a weak linguistic personality, expressions “and all that”, “and the like” are often found, acting as detail and abstraction (Karasik, 2001).
Logical impairments are also a sign of a weak linguistic personality. “Observations show that people tend to lose sight of some significant (most often not categorical, but characteristic) feature of an object for a short time: thereby, the object is to one degree or another disidentified in the consciousness of the subject, involuntarily does not belong to its class, in as a result of which the subject behaves in relation to object A as if it were not-A” (Savitsky, 2000).
Strong language personality
In rhetoric as the art of logical argumentation and verbal communication, the concept of “strong linguistic personality” usually includes: 1) possession of fundamental knowledge; 2) the presence of a rich information reserve and the desire to replenish it; 3) mastery of the basics of constructing speech in accordance with a specific communicative plan; 4) speech culture (idea of speech forms corresponding to the communicative intent) (Bezmenova, 1991).
G.G. Infantova notes that the characteristic features of a strong linguistic personality should include extralinguistic and linguistic indicators. The researcher notes that “among the extralinguistic signs of a strong linguistic personality, it is advisable to first of all include the social characteristics of the individual (the social activity of the individual should be considered a constant sign here, and the variables are social status, level of education and general development, age, profession and occupation, ideological orientation of the individual - democratic, anti-democratic, etc.); extralinguistic awareness (constant features here include the fundamental ability to take into account the speech situation, and variable features include the level of ability to take into account all the components and parameters of this situation, including the participants in the communicative act)” (Infantova, 2000).
Among the linguistic features, linguistic and speech features should be distinguished. They can be constant or variable.
The composition of permanent linguistic features should, according to G.G. Infantova, include mastery of means of all language levels, oral and written forms of speech, dialogic and monologue types of speech; by means of all styles of speech (meaning their abstract, dictionary and grammatical aspect; in the terminology of Yu.N. Karaulov - verbal-semantic, zero level of development of a linguistic personality, or associative-verbal network, - units: words and grammatical models, text parameters ) in their normative variety. The permanent speech characteristics include the implementation of an utterance in accordance with its internal program, mastery of all communicative qualities of speech (accuracy, expressiveness, etc.), compliance of the utterance as a whole with all parameters of the communicative act, the ability to perceive utterances in accordance with such parameters and adequately react to them. All this applies to both one statement and the entire text (Kadilina, 2011).
Variable speech characteristics include, for example, quantitative and qualitative indicators such as the degree of knowledge of the norms of speech communication, the degree of variety of means used, the degree of saturation of the text with expressive means of all language levels, the percentage of deviations from language norms and the percentage of communicative failures, as well as standardness /non-standard speech; simple reproduction of the language system or its creative use, enrichment (Infantova, 2000). In addition, writes G.G. Infantova, when forming a multidimensional model of a linguistic personality, it is advisable to identify constant and variable not only linguistic and speech characteristics, but also characteristics that characterize a linguistic personality from other points of view (for example, from the point of view of activity-communicative needs) (Infantova, 2000).
“Of course, a strong linguistic personality must know and skillfully use the entire range of linguistic means that enrich and embellish speech - comparisons, contrasts, metaphors, synonyms, antonyms, paremias, aphorisms, etc.” (Kadilina, 2011).
The use of word-symbols, from the point of view of E.A. Dryangina, reveals the richness of the linguistic personality. “At the same time, it is obvious that words-symbols help to convey the characteristics of the worldview and worldview of both the author and the addressee, thereby helping to establish a dialogue both between them and with the culture as a whole” (Dryangina, 2006).
A.A. Vorozhbitova, as an example of a strong linguistic personality, calls a future teacher of a democratic type who has ethical responsibility, general educational and professional training and high linguistic competence, ensuring effective speech activity in Russian (foreign) language (Vorozhbitova, 2000).
The concept of a linguistic personality includes not only linguistic competence and certain knowledge, but also “the intellectual ability to create new knowledge based on accumulated knowledge in order to motivate one’s actions and the actions of other linguistic individuals” (Tameryan, 2006). It follows that a strong linguistic personality is incompatible with underdeveloped intellectual activity, and that a prerequisite for a strong linguistic personality is a highly developed intellect. Moreover, Yu.N. Karaulov believes that “a linguistic personality begins on the other side of ordinary language, when intellectual forces come into play, and the first level (after zero) of its study is the identification, establishment of a hierarchy of meanings and values in its picture of the world, in its thesaurus” (Karaulov, 1987). Therefore, creativity is a necessary characteristic of a strong linguistic personality, as pointed out by Yu.N. Karaulov (1987). Linguistic creativity is understood as the ability to use not only knowledge of the idiomatic component, but also to use linguistic means in an individual or figurative sense (Kulishova, 2001).
A number of linguistic scientists interpret communication as the joint creation of meanings (Dyck, Kintsch, 1988; Wodak, 1997; Leontovich, 2005). For example, A. Schutz writes about the “social world of everyday intersubjectivity” of the communicant, which is built in mutual, mutually directed acts of presentation and interpretation of meanings (Quoted in: Makarov, 1998). Similarly, the “hermeneutics of play” by the German culturologist W. Iser, creatively developed by the American scientist P. Armstrong, presupposes “an alternating counter-movement of meanings open to each other for questioning” (see: Venediktova, 1997).
Researchers note that a linguistic personality appears in four of its guises: personality 1) thinking, 2) linguistic, 3) speech, 4) communicative (Puzyrev, 1997). On this basis, it seems completely fair to conclude that “if you expand the area of competence of a linguistic personality, then he, as a person with a decent status, must follow certain principles of not only word use, but also speech use, and then mental use” (Thorik, Fanyan, 1999).
Development of good, competent speech, the ability to explain, convince, defend certain positions- a requirement of modern life.
In types of speech culture, i.e. the degree of approximation of an individual’s linguistic consciousness to the ideal completeness of linguistic wealth in a particular type of language, O.B. Sirotinina distinguishes and contrasts such linguistic personalities as the bearer of an elite speech culture in relation to the literary norm, the bearer of dialect speech culture, the bearer of urban vernacular, etc. (Sirotinina, 1998). In the 90s of the twentieth century. dissertation studies and articles appeared with speech portraits of individual native speakers who master the elite speech culture (see: Kuprina 1998; Kochetkova 1999; Infantova 1999; Infantova, 2000; Infantova, 2000; Isaeva, Sichinava, 2007). For understanding such objects, the principle of intellectualism is especially significant (see: Kotova 2008).
IN AND. Karasik believes that we will get a more complete understanding of non-standard linguistic personalities if we turn to the study of the speech of not only writers, but also scientists, journalists, and teachers (Karasik, 2002). According to the prevailing opinion in society, “it is the literature teacher who should act as a bearer of an elite type of speech culture, master all the norms of the literary language, fulfill ethical and communication requirements?” (O.B. Sirotinina), since by the nature of his professional activity he is prepared not only for the use of language, but also for understanding linguistic facts and the very process of speech activity” (Grigorieva, 2006).
The problem of the linguistic personality as an individual, considered from the point of view of its readiness and ability to produce and interpret texts, is being actively developed in modern linguistic literature, starting with the works of G.I. Bogina and Yu.N. Karaulova. One of the most interesting objects of theoretical understanding here, of course, is the concept of a strong linguistic personality - one for whom a significant part of the production of modern artistic discourse is designed, and one who is able to apply adequate orientation strategies in this area of cultural communication. The problem of a strong linguistic personality was mostly highlighted in relation to the creators of texts - writers, writers, poets (see, for example: Kuznetsova, 2000).
“In general terms, the secrets of speech image can be summarized in the following list. This is knowledge of the basic norms of language and rules of rhetoric, principles of mutual understanding in communication, rules of etiquette - behavioral, including official, and speech; understanding the essence of persuasion techniques, the ability to classify (acceptable and unacceptable) and correctly apply tricks in a dispute and measures against them,
knowledge of techniques for dealing with difficult interlocutors; skillful and timely identification of positive and negative in the psychology of communication, that which leads to the emergence of psychological barriers in communication; avoiding logical-speech errors; the art of drawing up normative documents, preparing written and oral speech, knowledge of the reasons for unsuccessful argumentation, etc.” (Ryadchikova, 2001).
A speech delivered on the same occasion on the same topic will differ in the mouth of a weak, average and weak linguistic person. “Only great artists of words are capable of subjugating - partially and, of course, temporarily - the associative-verbal network of their native language. This occurs due to the emergence of a double semantic perspective, characteristic of irony, metaphor, and symbol” (Zinchenko, Zuzman, Kirnoze, 2003).
1.2 Linguistic studies of the language game
1.2.1 RolelanguagegamesVworldcultureAndlanguage of works of art
A major contribution to the development of the theory of language games belongs to the Dutch philosopher I. Huizinga. The game, in his opinion, is older than the cultural forms of society. Civilization originates from the game, and not vice versa. Based on an analysis of the meanings of the word “game” in different languages and civilizations, I. Huizinga came to the conclusion that in most of them “game” has a relationship with struggle, competition, competition, as well as love game(forbidden), which explains the tendency to play on forbidden topics (taboo) in modern jokes. The game is based on struggle or hostility, tempered by friendly relations. The roots of play in philosophy begin in the sacred game of riddles, the roots of play in poetry are mocking songs teasing the object of ridicule. Myths and poetry were recognized as linguistic games; Huizinga believes that language games are identical to magic. Despite Huizinga's assertions that the concept of play is not reducible to other terms and that a biological approach is not applicable to it, it still seems possible to question some of his statements. For example, his assumption that competition and competition are the basis that motivates the subject to ridicule the object does not apply to all utterances.
Language game as the operation of linguistic means in order to achieve a psychological and aesthetic effect in the mind of a thinking person is considered by many foreign and domestic scientists (Brainina, 1996; Vezhbitskaya, 1996; Sannikov, 1994; Huizinga, 1997; Bogin, 1998; Nikolina, 1998; Beregovskaya, 1999; Ilyasova, 2000a; Lisochenko, 2000).
In works of a philosophical nature, for example, J. Huizinga, the language game acts as a private implementation of the game as an element of culture. It reveals features common to sports, music, painting, etc. games. plan.
Realizing that language represents a special sphere of human life, literary scholars and linguists devote special research to the language game. There are works in which the consideration of the game is subordinated to the methods of its implementation. As a rule, the main such technique is a pun (Vinogradov, 1953; Shcherbina, 1958; Khodakova, 1968; Kolesnikov, 1971; Furstenberg, 1987; Tereshchenkova, 1988; Luxemburg, Rakhimkulova, 1992; 1996; Sannikov, 1997; Lyubich, 1998 ).
Researchers note that the language game is implemented within the framework of various functional types of language. This can be colloquial speech (Zemskaya, Kitaigorodskaya, Rozanova, 1983; Bondarenko, 2000), journalistic texts (Namitokova, 1986;
Neflyasheva, 1988; Ilyasova, 1998, 1986; 2000), artistic speech (Vinokur, 1943; Krysin, 1966; Grigoriev, 1967; Bakina, 1977; Kulikova, 1986; Luxemburg, Rakhimkulova, 1996; Brainina, 1996; Nikolina, 1998; Novikova, 2000; Rakhimkulova, 2000).
It seems that it is fiction that turns out to be the very space in which the language game can be fully realized. Moreover, there are authors who largely gravitate towards a playful manner of conveying thoughts. Artistic speech of the 18th - 19th centuries. realized the possibilities of playing with linguistic means primarily by creating a comic effect. Linguists note that among the masters of laughter in Russian classics we should first of all include A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin has long been considered a recognized master of puns, created through both a clash of meanings and a play on the form of expression (Khodakova, 1964; Lukyanov, 2000). It is interesting that puns and, more broadly, the generally playful manner of constructing a text are embodied in Gogol not only at the lexical-semantic, but also at the syntactic level. In the second case, it is created by “unskillfully interrupted, syntactically helpless speech of the characters, coinciding (similar) ends of two or more sentences or phrases that comically emphasize the object of conversation or characteristics, and unexpected transitions from one key to another (Bulakhovsky, 1954). Obviously, the language game embodied in Russian literary and artistic texts has its roots in buffoon culture, the traditions of Russian folk farce theater, and folklore in general. Without any doubt, game genres include ditties, anecdotes, jokes, tongue twisters, and riddles. In the circle of authorized works, as scientists point out, it includes the language of vaudeville (Bulakhovsky, 1954). Authors of comedies of the 18th century gravitate towards language games (Khodakova, 1968).
It must be emphasized that the language game presupposes two fundamentally different forms of existence.
Firstly, one can find literary genres specifically designed for its implementation, aimed at drawing the perceiver (reader, viewer) into the creative process, generating multiple allusions in the recipient, and capturing the hidden meanings hidden in the text. This is not only the already mentioned comedy and vaudeville, but also an epigram, parody, palindrome, and acrostic poem.
Secondly, a language game can appear on the pages of works that do not have it in the list of obligatory elements, absolute features of the genre. It is this form of manifestation of the language game that depends on the intentions of the author, on the mindset of his mind. It seems that it is most significant in characterizing the writer’s idiostyle and the specifics of his linguistic personality. The variety of language game techniques, commitment to individual methods of its implementation makes the writer’s work individual, unique, and therefore recognizable. Thus, the artistic style of M. Zoshchenko is characterized by a collision of the literary version of the language and vernacular (Bryakin, 1980), i.e. game at the lexical-semantic and syntactic level.
The paradoxical compatibility of linguistic units turns out to be extremely significant for A. Platonov (Bobylev, 1991; Skobelev, 1981). Consequently, he embodies the game in a syntagmatic way.
E. Bern believes that the game has two main characteristics: ulterior motives and the presence of winnings (Bern, 1996).
It should be noted that the language game does not necessarily mean an attitude towards the funny. Apparently, the creation of texts where everything is deliberately unclear should be considered a kind of language game with the reader. Researchers call nonsense one of the techniques for generating game text with general unclear semantics. V.P. Rakov notes that nonsense (the absurdity of the meaning created in the text) can exist in different types, generated either only at the semantic level, or at the formal level, but at the same time has the same goal - to influence the reader, to create an impression with its paradoxicality. The semantic “darkness” of works containing nonsense encourages the reader, forced to seek clarity in the foggy, to activate the thought process. This manner of creating works is especially characteristic of literature of the “non-classical paradigm.” It consists in “the destruction of the lexical cohesion of an aesthetic statement, its continuity, deformation of syntax and strict optical geometricism of the text” (Rakov, 2001).
This fact in modern literature is primarily characteristic of the postmodernist movement. It is not for nothing that its representatives operate with the concepts of “the world as chaos”, “the world as text”, “double coding”, “inconsistency”, etc. (Bakhtin, 1986). There is a clear focus on working with text construction techniques, expressive and figurative means, and not with meanings. Therefore, playing with language, focused on using the potential of linguistic units, becomes an integral part of postmodernism texts. This causes the appearance of works characterized by an overly complex and sometimes confusing construction, which in turn affects the perception of their content (cf. works by Borges, Cortazar, Hesse, Joyce, etc.). Such dominance of form over content is determined by the essence of the game as such, its self-sufficiency, which presupposes “play for the sake of the game itself,” the absence of any goals that have meaning outside the playing space. language game personality speech
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For all stylistic figures of speech in the book, the technique of graphic highlighting in the text is used - all expressions based on a language game are highlighted in capital letters. “HE simply became NOT HIS HIMSELF.” “I always have FREE ENTRANCE!”
The most common gaming technique in this text is the materialization of a metaphor or phraseological unit. A stable expression is broken into parts and an abstract concept is personified or reified. For example, in the second chapter, Appetite walks around hungry, looking lost, and no one needs him. He can be put on a chain and forced to guard the house. “There’s a draft here,” the Esquire noted. - What, my friend, did you imagine, there is no one here except the two of us! - Pan reassured him.” - From this conversation we see that the draft takes Mr. Pan for an animate being.
“Such a thought came to his mind, or maybe it didn’t even come, but flew in, because it happened in a strong draft, when...” - the first thing the author does is insert the phraseological unit “the thought came” into the text. Then the author breaks it down and the abstract concept of thought becomes actor, which can come or fly, and even an external object that is born not in the head, but somewhere outside of it.
“I’m losing my head... Day of Loss!” - the collocation “losing your head” is dissected and the word head becomes a lost object; if we take into account that the speaker is Mr. Pan working in a lost and found office, then comedy appears, a language game becomes a language joke. “A weight has been lifted from your shoulders... - How many times have I asked you not to carry heavy things.” A mountain seems to be a kind of object that is carried, carried from place to place, because it is placed on a par with “heaviness”, in the word heaviness we see furniture, heavy bags, that is, these are heavy things, heavy objects, cargo Big Explanatory Dictionary . http://www.gramota.ru/slovari/dic/?word=%D1%82%D1%8F%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C&all=x, which are quite compacts, no one will see a locomotive or a house in the word gravity, much less a mountain. But in D. Rubina’s text, the mountain, like the head, becomes a literal object, and defamiliarization occurs. (V. Shklovsky. Art as a technique, in his book. On the theory of prose. M., Federation, 1929, 11-12)
Sometimes the game may be based on an unnamed phraseological unit. “Dead silence” is absent from the text; we immediately read in the dialogue the phrase “Just a minute ago the silence was alive, but now it has died from fear.” As in the previously given examples, the phraseological unit was broken into parts and each of the words began to be perceived literally, with the word “silence” personification occurred.
A literalized phraseological unit or metaphor can be combined with other set expressions or their parts. In the third chapter, after classifying the concept of “calling” as an object and returning it back to the category of abstract values, the Esquire says with a sigh that “you have to SEARCH, then YOU WILL FIND YOUR CALLING,” and you can say that “YOU FOUND your CALLING.”
The position of the stable expression in the context also plays an important role. Sometimes the meaning of a particular trope is revealed in just a few sentences. For example, “it’s hard to find your calling,” thanks to the meaning of the previous sentences, takes on a literal meaning. “While I was wandering through the swamps and looking for that idiot Mr. Bull, I suddenly realized... there is and cannot be any calling away from strawberry pudding. .. That’s it, sir, I’ll tell you - it’s very difficult to find your calling.” Indeed, while Benjamin Smith was looking for a vocation (as a subject), he overcame many difficulties: he wandered through the swamps, was left without strawberry pudding. It was indeed difficult for Esquire. Another time, the author writes: “... the journey across the tiles left an indelible mark on Trikitak’s pants. That is, no matter how much Aunt Trotty tried to smooth out the accordion on his pants with a hot iron, the mark remained indelible.” Thus, if in the first use of the word “indelible” we see an abstract meaning, then the next sentence dispels this impression, making the meaning of the word “indelible” literal.
The author also bestows the literalness of the saying on rhetorical statements: “I can’t live without it (appetite - N.K.)!” - exclaims Mr. Pan, and this is the absolute truth. A person without appetite stops eating, and without food he dies after a while, that is, it is impossible to live without appetite. The author returns the postulate of sincerity to phraseology. The same thing happens in the dialogue between Peng and Smith: Mr. Buhl will share his experience - ... do you think he won’t be greedy?” Experience appears as something that can be divided into parts.
In addition to dividing expressions and playing with words obtained as a result of this division, the author often plays with parts of one word - in this case they become independent words; in word games, words are often used that are not cognate in relation to independent words obtained from parts of a divided word: “an announcement is an announcement of a phenomenon,” “horizon” becomes a sentence with a verb in the imperative mood and an appeal to the umbrella “Gori-Umbrella.” In search of a hobby, Pan is going to take up “astronomy,” but the Esquire dissuades his friend, claiming that “asters are whimsical.”
New words are created: “he landed, or rather COVERED UP,” and “offensive acid” appears from the word insults.
The qualities of homonymy and antonymy give rise to another way of playing with words. “Why don’t we start protecting the environment? “But today is already Thursday!” The word Wednesday in the first sentence has the meaning of habitat, in the second sentence it means day of the week. And in contrast to the previously given example, we see in the text the following type of language game - “the note read... no, she was silent...”. The verb glasila has two meanings, see Big Explanatory Dictionary. http://www.gramota.ru/slovari/dic/?lop=x&bts=x&zar=x&ag=x&ab=x&sin=x&lv=x&az=x&pe=x&word=%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1% 81%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8C, one of which is the antonym of the verb silent, is played out.
As one of the techniques of language games, the polysemy of words is actively used, which is enhanced with the help of syntax. Groups of sentences are common where sentences follow each other as follows: “... it’s midnight. She stepped right on Trikitak’s house.” First of all, the author uses the polysemy of the word “came”, and then a syntactic feature - homonyms follow one after another, in sentences that continue each other.
The text contains many examples when language patterns established by the author himself may be violated. For example, as we wrote earlier, “he landed, no, or rather, covered himself, because he ended up on the roof,” a new word is created (the condition for creation is the place where he ended up main character, the need to create this new word is spelled out in the text), but already in the next sentence KRYKRYZHILS changes the semantics, “kryshilsya on the weather vane.” Not only the logic of creating an expression is violated, but also the reader’s expectations. Such transformations can occur with a word denoting an abstract concept. Also, from the previously given examples, we saw that the word “vocation” initially sounds like an abstract concept, then materializes, then again turns into an abstraction (by prescribing the definition by the author) and finally, for the third time, its transition to the world of objects occurs, and in this capacity it already exists until the end of the chapter.
The stylization of an English literary work is organically reflected in the entire fairy tale, manifesting itself especially clearly in individual episodes. Pan Trikitak's first meeting with Aunt Trotty's dog Lady Emmy Suite is like something out of an English novel. A high syllable is used.
“He stood in front of the booth... and was thinking about how best to make himself known... The lady was silent” (the author achieves the effect of personification by shortening the dog’s name). Then events develop rapidly: the chain interrupted and rang (it seems that this is the chain of the order), but the illusion is broken - dragging the chain, the dog crawled out of the box, the bulldog rushed.
Separately, it is necessary to say about games based on phonetics. The sound shell of the word is used to describe and emphasize the character of the characters. Starting with a name that sounds expressive. For example, TeTya TroTTi. “T-t-t-t-t” - like the chatter of a machine gun, or like imitating the sound of a fast conversation. Such is the character of the aunt: she is talkative, she is straightforward, she always says everything “head-on”.
The author finds another opportunity to use phonetics in the often repeated phrase by Benjamin Smith: “Things must be done.” And even one of the chapters is called that. The author plays with the sounds “D-d-d-t” - it’s like a measured blow of a hammer, he hit loudly, loudly, loudly and achieved his goal, so he also lightly tapped - “th”. This is Benjamin Scott's model of behavior.
Appetite is consonant with the phrase “this type”, offensive acid insults, here we see a paronymic attraction when ascorbic acid turned into offensive during the speech process.
As can be seen from the list, the writer uses a variety of wordplay techniques. Phonetics, syntax, morphology, graphics, semantics - at all these levels of language, the author creates more and more new examples of language games.
